LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 5 



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t UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, f 



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/0£/c<zuZftt Jbtuo/s/fff 



PRINCIPLES 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

DEFINED AND ILLUSTRATED. 



TO WHICH ARE ADDED 



PIECES IN PKOSE AND POETRY, 



DESIGNED FOE 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES; 



FALSE SYNTAX FOE CORRECTION, 



By ELIJAH A. BURNS. 



ty 



SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND IMPROVED. 



CINCINNATI: 

PUBLISHED BY APPLEGATE & CO. 
1859. 



Ten 1 ' 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by 

ELIJAH A. BURN'S, 

In the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
District of Ohio. 



2 TCb 



PREFACE. 



In reference to the Origin of Language, phi- 
lologists have maintained three opinions. 1. That 
it was the pure gift of God, communicated to man, 
as from a teacher to a pupil. 2. That* it was an 
invention of man, which his social nature com- 
pelled him to contrive for the purpose of commu- 
nication. 3. That it is a natural and necessary 
result of his organization, as much as reason is. 
The last opinion is probably correct. William von 
Humboldt observes, " According to my fullest con- 
viction, speech must be regarded as naturally in- 
herent in man; for it is altogether inexplicable 
as a work of his understanding in its simple con- 
sciousness. We are none the better for allowing 
thousands and thousands of years for its invention. 
There could be no invention of language unless its 
type already existed in the human understanding. 
Man is man only by means of speech, but in order 

to invent speech he must be already man." 

(3) 



IV PKEFACE. 

On examination, it is ascertained that more than 
four-fifths of all the words in common use in the 
English Language, are of Anglo-Saxon origin. 
Those words expressive of the dearest relations of 
life; as, father, mother, brother, sister, husband, 
wife, son, daughter, are Anglo-Saxon. In reading 
English authors, we generally find, upon an average, 
that out of twenty-six thousand five hundred and 
sixty words, about twenty-three thousand are from 
the Anglo-Saxon. This fact presents a strong 
reason in favor of studying the Anglo-Saxon in 
our American schools. 

The English Language is preeminently the 
Language of Liberty, Progress and Civilization. 
Many of the ancient and modern languages have 
contributed their richest gems to improve and em- 
bellish it ; and it is admitted by the most erudite 
critics, that it affords a greater variety of appropri- 
ate words for expressing lofty and sublime thought, 
than any other language spoken by man. 

At present those who use the English Language, 
surpass all the rest of mankind in morality, refine- 
ment, and useful invention ; and perhaps, the time 
is not very far distant, when they will control the 
Literature and Politics of the world. In view of 
this, no American student should consider his edu- 



PREFACE. V 

cation finished, until he is perfectly familiar with 
the agreement and government of the English 
Language. A thorough acquaintance with our 
own language, is an acquisition which transcends 
every other literary accomplishment. No person 
will be likely to deny this position when he remem- 
bers, that the greater part of whatever knowledge 
he possesses, be it much or little, has been derived 
through the medium of his vernacular tongue. 

After teaching the most approved systems of 
English Grammar, during a period of more than 
twenty years, the Author, in order to facilitate the 
progress of his own students, has introduced a new 
plan of imparting grammatical instruction, which 
he believes, possesses some advantages over every 
other system with which he is acquainted. The 
extensive encouragement which the system has 
received, during several years past, is the best 
evidence of its superior merit. Hundreds of re- 
spectable literary gentlemen have unhesitatingly 
declared their conviction, that a class will obtain 
a more extensive knowledge of the analysis and 
construction of the English Language in twenty 
days, on this plan of teaching, than is usually 
acquired in our schools in two or three years. 

In preparing this volume for publication, it has 



VI PREFACE. 

been the Author's design to furnish classes with a 
System of Definitions, Rules, and Analytical Exer- 
cises, so arranged as to correspond in every par- 
ticular with his Method of Teaching. But as it 
contains no explanation of the plan, the student 
must not suppose, that a knowledge of the system 
can be acquired from a mere perusal of the book ; 
this can be obtained only from one who has studied 
the system with a competent teacher. The Author's 
principal object in publishing this work, has been 
to furnish a suitable text-book for those employed 
in teaching his system; but it is hoped that the 
work will be found useful to teachers and schools 
in general. It is believed that those who introduce 
it into their schools, will find it well calculated to 
accelerate the progress of their pupils in the ardu- 
ous study of English Grammar. 



OF GBAMMAB. 



Grammar is the science of language. 

Language is the utterance of articulate 
sounds for the purpose of communicating 
thought. 

There are two sorts or species of Gram- 
mar, Universal and Particular. 

Universal Grammar explains those prin- 
ciples which are common to all languages. 

Particular Grammar applies those general 
principles to a particular language, modifying 
them according to its genius, and the estab- 
lished practice of the best speakers and 
writers by whom it is used. 

The established practice of the best speakers 
and writers -of any language, is the standard 
of grammatical accuracy in the use of that 
language. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English Grammar is the art of speaking 
and writing the English language correctly. 

Grammar is divided into four parts; 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Prosody. 

(7) 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Orthography teaches the nature and pow- 
ers of letters, and the just method of spelling 
words. 

As students generally use the spelling book 
or dictionary when studying Orthography, a 
treatise on that subject is not thought neces- 
sary here. 

Etymology treats of the Classification, In- 
flections, and Derivation of words. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar which 
teaches the proper arrangement of words in 
the construction of sentences. 

Prosody treats of the pronunciation of 
words, the laws of versification, and punc- 
tuation.. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the Classification, In- 
flections, and Derivation of words. 

There are nine classes of words, commonly 
called parts of speech; namely, the Noun, 
Verb, Pronoun, Adjective, Adverb, Participle, 
Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection. 

OF NOUNS. 

A Noun is a name; as, man, Ohio, non- 
entity. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Common and 
Proper. 

A Common Noun is a name applicable to 
every individual of a class, sort, or genus; 
as, man, bird, river. 



NOUNS. 9 

Collective, Abstract, and Verbal nouns are 
generally considered common. 

A Noun signifying many is called a Col- 
lective noun or noun of multitude ; as, army, 
meeting, herd. 

An Abstract noun is the name of a quality 
considered apart from its substance ; as, sweeU 
ness, goodness, knowledge. 

A Verbal or participial noun is derived 
from a verb, and denotes an action or state 
of being ; as, " The driving is like the driv- 
ing of Jehu, the son of Nimshi." 

The proper names of persons and places 
often become common, when preceded by a 
or the ; as, He is the Milton of his age, — that 
is the poet. " Many a fiery Alp"— that is 
mountain. 

A Proper Noun used in the plural number, 
becomes common, because it is then applied 
to two or more individuals; as, the Wash- 
ingtons, Franklins, Websters. 

A Proper Noun is the name of an indi- 
vidual ; as, Brutus, Boston, JEtna. 

Common nouns become proper when per- 
sonified ; as, " Hail, artless Simplicity, beau- 
tiful maid!" 

A common noun preceded by the definitive 
adjective the, sometimes becomes proper; as^ 
The Isthmus. 

To Nouns belong Gender, Person, Number, 
and Case. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF GENDEK. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with 
regard to sex. Nouns have three genders, 
the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter. 

The Masculine gender denotes males ; as, 
a man, a boy. 

The Feminine gender denotes females ; as, 
a woman, a girl. 

The Neuter gender denotes things without 
sex ; as, a book, a table. 

In English, we generally apply the genders 
agreeably to the order of nature ; they be- 
long only to nouns and pronouns. Pronouns 
must always be of the same gender as the 
nouns which they represent. 

Nouns which apply equally to both males 
and females, when used in the singular num- 
ber, are said to be of the masculine or femi- 
nine gender ; as, person, cousin, bird. Some 
writers assert, that such nouns are of the 
common gender ; this is evidently an error. 
A noun in the singular number, can not be 
of the common gender, for the plain reason, 
that one animal can not be both a male and 
a female. Murray says, " There is no such 
gender belonging to the language." Goold 
Brown observes, " It is plainly a solecism/' 

Some nouns include both sexes; as, parents, 
children, pupils, friends. Such nouns should 
be parsed as masculine and feminine. 



GENDER. 11 

In speaking of animals remarkable for size, 
strength, boldness, etc., we usually apply the 
masculine gender. Thus we say of the ele- 
phant, He roams in his native forest. i 

Animals remarkable for weakness or timid- 
ity, are generally spoken of as feminine. 
Thus we say of the hare, She is a timid 
creature. 

When a name equally applicable to both 
sexes, is used in connection with an employ- 
ment, office, or profession, which properly 
belongs to males, it should be parsed as mas- 
culine. Thus, if I say, I hired a person to 
saw wood, it is evident that person should 
be parsed as masculine gender. 

Inferior orders of animals, such as birds, 
serpents, fishes, and insects, are usually 
spoken of as neuter; as, I watched the bird 
as it flew from bough to bough. 

All things without life are really of the 
neuter gender, yet by a figure of speech, we 
often attribute gender to inanimate objects ; 
as, 

" Is Death at distance ? No ; Tie has been on thee, 
And giv'n sure earnest of his final blow." 
"Hear the loud voice 

Of Wisdom sounding in her works." 

When speaking figuratively, we usually 
give the masculine gender to those things 
which are great, powerful, or efficacious ; as,- 
the sun, ocean, time, winter, death, etc. 



12 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



On the other hand, things gentle, beauti- 
ful, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine; 
as, the moo)i, earth, wisdom, spring, etc. 

We have three methods of distinguishing 

the sex. 

1. By different words ; as, 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Bachelor 


maid 


King 


queen 


Boar 


sow 


Lad 


lass 


Boy 


girl 


Lord 


lady 


Brother 


sister 


Man 


woman 


Buck 


doe 


Master 


mistress 


Bull 


cow 


Milter 


spawner 


Cock 


hen 


Nephew 


niece 


Dog 


bitch 


Ram 


ewe 


Drake 


duck 


Singer 


songstress, 


Earl 


countess 




or singer 


Father 


mother 


Sloven 


slut 


Friar 


nun 


Son 


daughter 


Gander 


goose 


Stag 


hind 


Hart 


roe 


Uncle 


aunt 


Horse 


mare 


Wizard 


witch 


Husband 


wife 


Sir 


madam 


2. By 


a difference 


in termination; as, 


Abbot 


abbess 


Count 


countess 


Actor 


actress 


Czar 


czarina 


Administrator administratrix 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Detractor 


detractress 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Director 


directress 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Duke 


duchess 


Auditor 


auditress 


Elector 


electress 


Author 


authoress 


Embassador 


embassadress 


Baron 


baroness 


Emperor 


empress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Executor 


executrix 


Canon 


canoness 


Fornicator 


fornicatress 


Caterer 


cateress 


God 


goddess 


Chante 


chantress 


Governor 


governess 


Conductor 


conductress 


Heir 


heiress 





PERSON. 


13 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Hero 


heroine 


Proprietor 


proprietress 


Host 


hostess 


Protector 


protectress 


Hunter 


huntress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Inheritor 


inheritress or 


Songster" 


songstress 




inheritrix 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Instructor 


instructress 


Suitor 


suitress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Sultan 


sultaness or 


Lion 


lioness 




sultana 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Tiger 


tigress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Testator 


testatrix 


Patron 


patroness 


Traitor 


traitress 


Peer 


peeress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Poet 


poetess 


Tyrant 


tyranness 


Priest 


priestess 


Victor 


victress 


Prince 


princess 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Prior 


prioress 


Votary 


votaress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Widower 


widow 


3. 


By prefixing c 


mother word 


; as, 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


A cock-sparrow 


A hen-s 


oarrow 


A man-servant 


A maid- 


servant 


A he-goat 


A she-goat * 


A he-bear 


A she-bear 


A m 


ale-child 


A female-child 


Male-descendants 


Female-descendants 



OF PERSON". 

Person is that property of nouns and pro- 
nouns which varies the verb; as, I am, thou 
art, John is. 

Nouns have three persons ; the first, the 
second, and the third. 

The first person denotes the speaker ; as, 
"I Paid have written unto you;" We the 
people will be heard. 

A noun is never of the first person, except 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

when put by apposition with a pronoun of 
the first person. 

The second person denotes the person or 
thing addressed; as, " Oscar, terrible wert 
thou, my best, my greatest son." " Star of 
descending night ! fair is thy light in the 
west." 

The third person denotes the person or 
thing spoken of; as, Jesus died for sinners; 
Wisdom is desirable. 

OF DUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of objects, as one 
or more. 

Nouns are of two numbers, the singular 
and plural. 

The lingular number denotes but one ; as, 
day. 

The plural number denotes more than one; 
as, days. 

1. Some nouns are used only in the singular 
form ; as, hemp, flax, barley, wheat, pitch, gold, 
sloth, pride, honesty, meekness, compassion, etc. ; 
others only in the plural form ; as, bellows, scissors, 
ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers, 
ides, pains, vespers, etc. 

2. Some words are the same in both numbers ; 
as, deer, sheep, swine ; and, also, hiatus, apparatus, 
series, species. 

3. The plural number of nouns is generally 
formed by adding s to the singular; as, dove, 
doves ; face, faces ; but sometimes we add es in 



NUMBER. 15 

the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, 
lashes ; cargo, cargoes. 

4. Nouns ending in / or fe, are rendered plural 
by a change of that termination into ves ; as, half, 
halves ; wife, wives : except grief, relief, reproof, 
and several others, which form their plurals by the 
addition of s. Those ending inff, have the regular 
plural ; as, ruff, ruffs ; except staff, staves. 

5. Nouns ending in y, in the singular, with no 
other vowel in the same syllable, change it into ies 
in the plural ; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But 
the y is not changed where there is another vowel 
in the syllable ; as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; at- 
torney, attorneys ; valley, valleys ; chimney, chim- 
neys. 

6. Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, 
ethics, pneumatics, hydraulics, etc., are construed 
either as singular or plural nouns. 

7. The word news is always singular. The nouns 
means, alms and amends, though plural in form, 
may be either singular or plural in signification. 
Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutisB, are 
always plural. Bandit is now used as the singular 
of banditti. 

8. The following nouns form their plurals not 
according to any general rule ; thus, man, men ; 
woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; tooth, 
teeth ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice j 
louse, lice ; brother, brothers or brethren ; cow, 
cows or kine ; penny, pence, or pennies w 7 hen the 
coin is meant ; die, dice for play, dies for coining; 
pea and fish, pease and fish when the species is 
meant, but peas and fishes when we refer to the 
number ; as, six peas, ten fishes. 

9. The following compounds form their plurals 



16 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



thus : handful, handfuls ; cupful, cupfuls ; spoon- 
ful, spoonfuls; brother-in-law, brothers-in-law; 
court-martial, courts-martial. 

The following words form their plurals accord- 
ing to the rules of the languages from which they 
are adopted. 



SINGULAR 

Antithesis 
Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum 
Automaton 
Axis 
Basis 

Beau 

Calx 

Cherub 

Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Diaeresis 

Desideratum 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Encomium 

Erratum 



antitheses 

apices 
| appendixes or 
\ appendices 

arcana 

automata 

axes 

bases 
J beaux or 
\ beaus 
J calces or 
\ calxes 
f cherubim or 
\ cherubs 

crises 

criteria 

data 

diaereses 

desiderate 

effluvia 

ellipses 

emphases 

encomia or 

encomiums 

errata 



SINGULAR. 

Genius 
Genus 
Hypothesis 
Ignis fatuus 

Index 

Lamina 

Magus 

Memoran- f 
dum | 

Metamorphosis 
Parenthesis 
Phenomenon 

Radius \ 

Stamen 

Seraph \ 

Stimulus 
Stratum 
Thesis 
Vertex 

Vortex \ 



f! 



PLURAL. 

genii * 

genera 

hypotheses 

ignes fatui 

indices or 

indexes f 

laminae 

magi 

memoranda or 

memorandums 

metamorphoses 

parentheses 

phenomena 

radii or 

radiuses 

stamina 

seraphim or 

seraphs 

stimuli 

strata 

theses 

vertices 

vortices or 

vortexes 



* Genii, imaginary spirits; geniuses, persons of great 
mental abilities. 

f Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant; 
indices, when referring to algebraic quantities. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 17 

OF CASE. 

Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, 
means the position which they occupy in a 
sentence, in relation to other words. 

Nouns have three cases; the Nominative, 
the Possessive, and the Objective. 

The Nominative case denotes the subject 
of the verb 5 as, James walks; The horses 
trot. 

The Possessive case denotes the possession 
of property, and has an apostrophe with the 
letter s placed after it ; as, The boys book ; 
Adeline's map. 

When the plural ends in s, the other s is 
omitted, but the apostrophe is retained ; as, 
The boys books. 

The Objective case expresses the object of 
an action or of a relation ; and follows a 
transitive verb, a transitive participle, or a 
preposition; as, William loves his friend; 
I heard Andrew reciting his lesson; Give 
the book to Leona. 

DECLENSION" OF NOUNS. 
The declension of nouns and pronouns, is 
the proper arrangement of their numbers 
and cases. 

NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED. 

Pill. 





Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Nom. 


Girl, 


Girls, 


Peter, 


Poss 


Girl's, 


Girls', 


Peter's, 


Ohj. 

2 


Girl. 


Girls. 


Peter. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

The following are the different positions 
in which a noun may occur in composition : 

1. It may be in the nominative case to a 
verb ; as, Selina writes. 

2. It may be in the possessive case; as, 
Selina s paper. 

3. It may be in the objective case, gov- 
erned by a transitive verb ; as, I saw Selina. 

4. It may be in the objective case, gov- 
erned by a transitive participle; as, After 
hearing Selina read, I dismissed the class. 

5. It may be in the objective case, gov- 
erned by a preposition ; as, Give the book to 
Selina. 

6. It may be in the nominative case in- 
dependent ; as, Selina, you read well. 

7. It may be in the nominative case abso- 
lute ; as, Selina having arrived, we proceeded 
on our journey. 

8. It may be in the nominative case by 
apposition; as, The grammarian Selina is 
present. 

9. It may be in the objective case by appo- 
sition; as, I heard the grammarian Selina 
analyze a sentence. 

10. It may be in the nominative case after 
the verb to be, or one of its inflections ; as, 
The lady is Selina. 

11. It may be in the objective case after 
the verb to be ; as, I took her to be Selina. 

12. It may, in connection with the infini- 



SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING NOUNS. 19 

tive mood or a substantive phrase, form a 
part of the nominative to a verb; as, To 
hear Selina sing, is pleasant. 

A noun used without a restricting wdrd, 
is sometimes taken in its widest sense ; as, 
Man is lower than the angels — that is, all 
mankind. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING NOUNS 
IN THEIR VARIOUS POSITIONS. 

THE NOUNS IN ITALICS ARE PARSED. 
THE NOMINATIVE CASE. , 

Augustus writes. 
Augustus is a proper noun, of the mascu- 
line gender, third person, singular number, 
in the nominative case to the verb writes, 
agreeably to Rule 1. A noun or a pronoun 
is in the nominative case to the verb of which 
it is the subject. 

THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

This is the hoys book. 
Boy's is a common noun, of the masculine 
gender, third person, singular number, in 
the possessive case, it possesses book, and is 
governed by it, agreeably to Rule 4. The 
possessive case is governed by the noun pos- 
sessed 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— governed by a Transitive Verb. 
I saw Josephine. 
Josephine is a proper noun, of the femin- 
ine gender, third person, singular number, 
in the objective case, governed by the tran- 
sitive verb saw, agreeably to Rule 6. Tran- 
sitive verbs govern the objective case. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— governed by a Transitive 
Participle. 

Having recited my lesson, I left the room. 

Lesson is a common noun, of the neuter 
gender, third person, singular number, in the 
objective case, governed by the transitive 
participle having recited, agreeably to Rule 
30. Participles retain the regimen of the 
verbs from which they are derived. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— governed by Preposition. 

Give the locket to Valeria. 
Valeria is a proper noun, of the feminine 
gender, third person, singular number, in the 
objective case, governed by the preposition 
to, agreeably to Rule 7. Prepositions govern 
the objective case. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE— Independent 
Horace, study your lesson. 
Horace is a proper noun, of the mascu- 
line gender, second person, singular number, 
in the nominative case independent, agree- 
ably to Rule 2. When a noun or a pronoun 



SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING NOUNS. 21 

is addressed, if is in the nominative case in- 
dependent. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE— Absolute. 

Our vjork being finished, we returned home. 
Work is a common noun, of the neuter 
gender, third person, singular number, in the 
nominative case absolute, agreeably to Rule 
3. When a noun or a pronoun precedes a 
participle, and its case depends on no other 
word in the sentence, it is in the nominative 
case absolute. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE—% Apposition. 

Mary, Queen of Scots, was admired' for her 
beauty. 
Queen is a common noun, of the feminine 
gender, third person, singular number, in the 

NOMINATIVE CASE by APPOSITION with MARY, 

agreeably to Rule 5. When nouns or pro- 
nouns are added to preceding nouns or pro- 
nouns to explain them, they are by apposition 
in the same case. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— by Apposition. 
I read the works of Newton the Philosopher. 
Philosopher is a common noun, of the 
masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, in the objective case by apposition 
with Newton, agreeably to Rule 5. When 
nouns or pronouns are added to preceding 
nouns or pronouns to explain them, they ^re 
by apposition in the same case. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE NOMINATIVE CASE— after the verb to be. 

Allen is a scholar. 
Scholar is a common noun, of the mascu- 
line gender, third person, singular number/ in 
the nominative case after is, one of the in- 
flections of the verb to be, agreeably to Rule 
21. The verb to be, and its inflections, may 
have the same case after them as before them. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE— after the verb to be. 

I took the lady to be Fercmia. 

Feronia is a proper noun, of the feminine 
gender, third person, singular number, in the 
objective case after the verb to be, agree- 
ably to Rule 21. The verb to be and its in- 
flections, may have the same case after them 
as before them. 

The inflections of the verb to be, never 
admit an objective case after them. 

OF VERBS. 

A verb is a word which signifies to exist, 
to act, or to endure action; as, I am, I ride, 
I am ruled. 

Verbs may be divided into three classes : 
Transitive, Intransitive and Passive. 

A Transitive verb is so designated, because 
the action which it expresses, passes from 
the subject or nominative to an object ; as, 
Susannah studies grammar. 

An Intransitive verb expresses being or ac- 



VERBS. 23 

tion which is confined to the nominative ; as, 
Philip is, he sleeps, he stands, he walks, he runs. 

The Passive verb expresses action received 
or endured by the nominative ; as, David 
was laved by Jonathan. 

The noun or pronoun which performs the 
action expressed by a passive verb, is always 
in the objective case, and is generally gov- 
erned by the preposition by, either expressed 
or understood. 

Verbs have two forms : one called Regidar, 
the other Irregular. 

A verb is said to be Regidar, when it forms 
its imperfect tense of -the indicative mood, 
and its perfect participle, by the addition of 
ed or d only, when the word ends in e ; as, 
walked, \oyed. 

A Verb is Irregular, when it will not form 
its imperfect tense of the indicative mood, 
and its perfect participle, by the addition of 
ed or d, when the word ends in e ; as, taught, 
saw, wrote. 

A Defective Verb is one that can not be 
conjugated through all the moods and tenses ; 
as, may, quoth, ought. 

Auxiliary or helping verbs are those 
used in conjugating other verbs ; they are 
do, did, have, had, shall, should, will, would, 
may, might, can, could, am, was, and must. 
Do, be, have, and will are sometimes princi- 
pal verbs. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To Verbs belong Number, Person, Mood, 
and Tense. 

OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 

Number and Person, when applied to 
verbs, mean the modifications which they 
undergo, in agreeing with their nominatives ; 
as, I write, thou writest, he writes ; The man 
writes, the men write. 

OF MOODS. 

Mood, when applied to veros, means the 
manner in which the existence, action, or 
endurance of action, is expressed. 

Verbs have five moods; the Indicative, 
the Subjunctive, the Potential, the Impera- 
tive, and the Infinitive. 

The Indicative mood simply affirms or de- 
nies a thing; as, He writes, he does not ivrite; 
or it asks a question ; as, Does he write ? 

The Subjunctive mood expresses existence, 
action, or endurance of action, as conditional, 
doubtful, or contingent ; as, I will love him, 
though he reprove me ; If he were good, he 
would be happy. A verb in this mood is 
preceded by a conjunction expressed or un- 
derstood, and attended by another verb. 

The Potential mood expresses possibility, 
liberty, necessity, power, will, or obligation ; 
as, It may rain; He may go or stay; He 
must teach; He can ivalk ; He would ride-, 
We should learn. This mood is also used in 



VERBS. 25 

asking questions ; as, May he go ? Must he 
walk ? Can he read ? 

The Imperative mood is used in command- 
ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting ; as, 
Depart thou; Remember thy Creator; For- 
give us our debts ; Go in peace. A verb in 
the Imperative mood, is always of the second 
person, and is never varied on account of 
number. 

The Infinitive mood expresses existence, 
action, or endurance of action, without limit- 
ation of number or person; as, To think, to 
speak r to write. A verb in the Infinitive 
mood, partakes of the nature of an 'abstract 
noun. 

OF TENSES. 

The Tenses of verbs are those modifica- 
tions which they undergo in marking the 
distinctions of time. 

Verbs have six tenses ; the Present, the 
Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the 
First Future, and the Second Future. 

Some of the names here given to the tenses 
are not as appropriate as they should be, yet 
it is believed nothing would be gained by 
changing them. Their use in designating 
the tenses, has been long sanctioned by our 
most eminent grammarians. 

The Present tense denotes what is passing 
at the time in which it is mentioned ; as, I 
read, he writes. 
3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

The present tense in the indicative mood, 
is used to express what is habitually true ; 
as. He reads every day. 

The present tense is often used in speak- 
ing of persons who are dead; as, a Seneca 
•reasons well/' 

In animated narrations, this tense is some- 
times substituted for the imperfect; as, He 
conquers the enemy, takes two thousand pri- 
soners, and returns home in triumph. 

When the present tense is preceded by as 
soon as, after, before, till, or when, it generally 
relates to future time ; as, When he comes, I 
will see him. 

The Imperfect tense denotes an action or 
event which trauspired within a period of 
time that is fully past; as, I met him on 
my way to Washington; I heard Henry 
read. 

This tense always expresses what is past 
and unconnected with the present time. 

The Perfect tense relates to what has taken 
place within a period of time not yet fully 
past; as, I have concluded to go; He has 
written a letter. 

The perfect tense may also relate to future 
time ; as, I will be in suspense till my friend 
has arrived. 

The Pluperfect tense expresses what had 
taken place before the time of another past 
action or event ; as, I had seen him before he 



VERBS. 27 

came to Ohio ; The class had recited when 
Joseph arrived. 

The pluperfect tense is often used condi- 
tionally, without a conjunction expressed; 
as, Had he finished the work, he would have 
received his wages. 

The First Future tense relates to an action 
or event which has not yet taken place ; as, 
I shall be there at "the appointed time ; He 
will come again. 

The Second Future tense denotes what will 
have taken place at or before the time of 
another future action or event ; as, ,He will 
have finished his letter before the mail 
arrives. 

In the Indicative mood there are six tenses ; 
in the Subjunctive six; in the Potential four; 
in the Imperative one ; in the Infinitive two. 

The Progressive form of the verb repre- 
sents an action as commenced, and in pro- 
gress. It is formed by associating the present 
participle with the verb to be, or one of its 
inflections, through all the moods and tenses; 
as, I am reading ; I was reading ; I have been 
reading ; I had been reading ; I shall or will 
be reading ; I shall or will have been reading. 

The Passive verb is formed by adding the 
verb to be, or one of its inflections, to the per- 
fect participle of a transitive verb ; as John 
will be rewarded; James teas seen at the fair; 
Charles has been remunerated. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAK, 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The Conjugation of a verb, means the 
regular combination and arrangement of its 
several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. 

The conjugation of a verb which expresses 
what is affirmed of an active nominative, is 
styled the Active Voice. 

The conjugation of a verb that expresses 
what is affirmed of a passive nominative, is 
called the Passive Voice. 

A regular transitive verb is conjugated in 
the following manner : 

TO LOVE— INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Per s. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Pers. Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you love, 

3. Per s. He loves. 3. They love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. "We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. Ye or you loved, 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. Ye or you have loved, 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 



VERBS. 



29 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Si?igular, . Plural 

1. T had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. Ye or you had loved, 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 



Singular. 

1. I shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 

3. He shall or will love. 



First Future Tense. 

Plural, 

1. We shall or will love, \ 

2. Ye or you shall or will love, 

3. They shall or will love. 



Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

loved, loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved. 3. They shall or will have loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I love, 

2. If thou love, 

3. If he love. 



Plural. 

1. If we love, 

2. If ye or you love, 

3. If they love. 



Singular. 

1. If I loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, 

3. If he loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Plural. 

1. If we loved, 

2. If ye or you loved, 

3. If they loved. 



Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved, 

3. If he has loved. 



Plural. 

1. If we have loved, 

2. If ye or you have loved, 

3. If they have loved. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PLUPERFECT. TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If ye or you had loved, 

3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will love, 1. If we shall or will love, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love, 2. If ye or you shall or will love, 

3. If he shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have 1. If we shall or will have 

loved, loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye or you shall or will 

loved, have loved, 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they Bhall or will have 

loved. loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must love, 1. We may, can, or must love, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

must love, love, 

3. He may, can, or must love. 3. They may, can, or must love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should love, should love, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst love, would, or should love, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should love. or should love. 



VERBS. 31 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

loved, loved, \ 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

have loved, have loved, 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must have 

loved. loved. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have loved, should have loved, 

2. Thou mights t, couldst, . 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, orshouldsthave would, or should have 

loved, loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should have loved. or should have loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, or 
thou love. do ye or you love. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Tense, To love. Perf. Tense, To have loved. 

Participles. 

Present, Loving. 

Perfect, , Loved. 

Compound-perfect. Having loved. 

When the auxiliary do precedes the verb, it is said "to 
be in the emphatic form; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Pers, I do love, 1. Pers. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. Ye or you do love, 

3. He does love. 3. They do love. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Sin gu lar. Plura I 

1. Pers. I did love, 1. Per s. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. Ye or you did love, 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 



PASSIVE VOICE— INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Pers. I am loved, 1. "We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved, 2. Ye or you are loved, 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. Ye or you were loved, 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. Ye or you have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3, They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I had been loved, I. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. Ye or you had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I shall or will be loved, 1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be 2. Ye or you shall or will be 

loved, loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. 



VERBS. 33 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have 2. Ye or you shall or will have 

been loved, been loved, 

3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have been 

loved., loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If ye or you be loved 3 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If he or you were loved, 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been loved, 1. If we have been loved, 

2. If thou hast been loved, 2. If ye or you have been loved, 

3. If he has been loved. 3. If they have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved, 1. If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved, 2. If ye or you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved, 3. If they had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will be loved, 1. If we shall or will be loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be 2. If ye or you shall or will be 

loved, loved, 

3. If he shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall or will be loved. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. If I shall or will have 1. If we shall or will have been 

been loved, loved, 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye or you shall or will 

been loved, have been loved, 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 

been loved. been loved. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be 1. "We may, can, or must be 

loved, loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

be loved, be loved, 

3. He may, can, or must be 3. They may, can, or must be 

loved, loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be loved, should be loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst be would, or should be 

loved, loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, 

should be loved. or should be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

been loved, been loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or must 

have been loved, have been loved, 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

been loved. have been loved. 



VERBS. 



35 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been loved, should have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, couJd, 

wouldst, 07'shouldsthave would, or should have 

been loved, been loved, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have been or should have be.en 

loved. loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do 
be loved. ye or you be loved. 



INFINITIVE 

Present Tense, 
Perfect Tense, 



MOOD. 

To be loved. 

To have been loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being loved. 

Perfect, Loved. 

Compound-perfect, Having been loved. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 



Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 



Abide 
Am 


abode 
was 


abode 
been 


Arise 
Awake 

Bake [forth 
Bear, to bring 


arose 
awoke R * 
baked 
bare or bore 


arisen 
awaked 
baken R, 
born 


Bear, to carry 
Beat 


bore or bare 
beat 


borne 

beaten or beat 


Begin 


began 


begun 



* Those verbs which are conjugated regularly as well as 
irregularly, are marked with an R. 



36 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 



Bend 




bent R 


bent R 


Bereave 




bereft R 


bereft R 


Beseech 




besought 


besought 


Bid 




bade, bid 


bidden 


Bind un- 




bound 


bound 


Bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 


bled 


Blow 




blew 


blown 


Break 




broke, brake 


broken 


Breed 




bred 


bred 


Bring 




brought 


brought 


Build re- 




built R 


built R 


Burst 




burst 


burst 


Buy 




bought 


bought 


Cast 




cast 


cast 


Catch 




caught R 


caught R 


Chide 




chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 




chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere clave R 


cleaved 


Cleave, to 


split 


clove or cleft 


cloven or cleft 


Cling 




clung 


clung 


Clothe 




clothed 


clad R 


Come be- 




came 


come 


Cost 




cost 


cost 


Crow 




crew R 


crowed 


Creep 




crept 


crept 


Cut 




cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, challenge 


dared 


dared 


Deal 


[is R 


dealt R 


dealt R 


Dig 




dug R 


dug R 


Do miS'Un- 


did 


done 


Draw 




drew 


drawn 


Drive 




drove 


driven 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



3T 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Dwell 


dwelt R 


dwelt R 


Eat 


ate or eat 


eaten 


Fall be- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsake'n 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get be-for 


got 


gotten or got 


Gild 


gilt R 


gilt R 


Gird be-en- 


girt R 


girt R 


Give for-mis- 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave en- R 


graved 


graven 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Have 


had 


had 


Hang 


hung 


hung 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove R 


hoven R 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn R 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold be-with- 


held 


held or holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


knit R 


knit or knitted 



38 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle, 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead mis- 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie down lay- 


lain 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


Load 


loaded 


laden R 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown R 


Pay re- 


paid 


paid 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit R 


quit 


Read 


read 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


rode 


Ring 


rang or rung 


rung 


Rise a- 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Rot 


rotted 


rotten R 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


• sawn R 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek ■ 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set be- 


set 


set 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



39 



Present. 


ImperfecL Pi 


irfect Participle. 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape mis- 


shaped 


shapen R 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven R 


Shear 


shore R 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone R 


shone R 


Show * 


showed 


shown 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang or sung 


sung 


Sink 


sank or sunk 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slang, slung 


slung 


Slink 


slank, slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit R 


slit or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown R 


Speak be- 


spoke 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend mis- 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt R 


spilt R 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Spit be- 


spat, spit 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread be- 


spread 


spread . 



* Shew, shelved, shewn, — pronounced show, etc. See foot 
of next page. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 

Spring 

Stand witk-eie 

Steal 

Stick 

Sting 

Stride be- 

Strike 

String 

Strive 

Strew * he- 

Strow be- 

Swear 

Sweat 

Sweep 

Swell 

Swim 

Swing 

Take be-etc. 

Teach mis-re- 

Tear un- 

Tell 

Think be- 

Thrive 

Throw 

Thrust 

Tread 

Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Weep 

Win 



Imperfeet. Perfect Participle. 

sprang, sprung 

stood 

stole 

stuck 

stung 

strode or strid 

struck 

strung 

strove 

strewed 

strowed 

swore 

sweat 

swept 

swelled 

swum 

swang, swung 

took 



taught 

tore 

told 

thought 

throve R 

threw 

thrust 

trod 

waxed 

wore 

wove 

wept 

won 



sprung 

stood 

stolen 

stuck 

stung 

stridden 

struck 

strung 

striven 

strewed or 

strown, strewed 

sworn 

sweat 

swept 

swollen R 

swum 

swung 

taken 

taught 

torn 

told 

thought 

thriven R 

thrown 

thrust 

trodden 

waxen R 

worn 

woven 

wept 

won 



* Strew and shew are now giving way to strow and slioiv, 
as they are pronounced. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



41 



Present. 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 

Write 



Imperfect. 
wound R 
wrought R 
wrung R 
wrote 



Perfect Participle. 
wound 

wrought, worked 
wrung 
written 



OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Present. 
Can 
May 
Must 
Ought 
Quoth 
Shall 
Will 
Wis 

Wit or \ 
Wot / 



Imperfect. 
could 
might 



Perfect Participle. 



quoth 
should 
would 
wist 



wot 



SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING VERBS. 

THE WORDS IN ITALICS ARE PARSED. 

THE TRANSITIVE VERB. 

Arethusa can write a beautiful hand. 

Can is an auxiliary to write, can writers 
an irregular transitive verb, in the poten- 
tial mood, present tense, third person, singu- 
lar number, and agrees with its nominative 
Arethusa, agreeably to Rule 20. A verb 
must agree with its nominative in person and 
number. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE INTRANSITIVE VERB. 

Francis walks to school. 
Walks is a regular intransitive verb, in 
the indicative mood, present tense, third per- 
son, singular number, and agrees with its 
nominative Francis, agreeably to Rule 20. 
A verb must agree with its nominative in 
person and number. 

THE PASSIVE VERB 

The apples were shaken from the tree. 

Were is an auxiliary to shaken, were 
shaken is an irregular passive verb, in the 
indicative mood, imperfect tense, third per- 
son, plural number, and agrees with its nom- 
inative apples, agreeably to Rule 20. A 
verb must agree with its nominative in per- 
son and number. 

THE PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB. 

The leaves are falling. 
Are is an auxiliary to falling, are falling 
is an intransitive verb, in the progressive 
form, in the indicative mood, present tense, 
third person, plural number, and agrees with 
its nominative leaves, agreeably to Rule 
20. A verb must agree with its nominative 
in person and number. 

A VERB IN THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Amelia intends to study Botany. 
To study is a regular transitive verb, in 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 43 

the infinitive mood, present tense, present to 
study, perfect to have studied, and is gov- 
erned by the verb intends, agreeably to 
Rule 23. A verb in the infinitive mood, 
may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, 
participle, or pronoun. 

THE INFINITIVE MOOD WITHOUT THE SIGN TO 
EXPRESSED. 

I saw the bird fly. 
Fly is an irregular intransitive verb, in 
the infinitive mood without the sign to ex- 
pressed, agreeably to Rule 24. The verbs 
which follow bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, 
feel, help, let, and their participles, are in the 
infinitive mood without the sign to expressed ; 
it is in the present tense, present to fly, per- 
fect to have flown, and is governed by the 
noun bird, agreeably to Rule 23. A verb in 
the infinitive mood may be governed by a 
verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

The lion roars. Lions roar. The man reads. 
Men read. Leander analyzes. The boys analyze. 
Caroline walks. The ladies walk. The hyacinth 
grows. Hyacinths grow. The billow rolls. Bil- 
lows roll. The boy eats grapes. Boys eat grapes. 
Peter throws the ball. The child loves fruit. 
Children love fruit. The teacher writes copies. 
Teachers write copies. Henry bought John's 
horse. The students use Webster's Dictionary. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Elvira has Lucetta's fan. Hannah has Rhoda's 
book. 

THE DEATH OF CALMAR AND ORLA. 

Dear are the days of youth ! Age dwells on 
their remembrance through the mist of time. In 
the twilight he recalls the sunny hours of morn. 
He lifts his spear with trembling hand. " Not 
thus feebly did I raise the steel before my fathers!" 
Past is the race of heroes ! But their fame rises 
on the harp ; their souls ride on the wings of the 
wind ; they hear the sound through the sighs of 
the storm, and rejoice in their hall of clouds! 
Such is Calmar. The gray stone marks his nar- 
row house. He looks down from eddying tem- 
pests; he rolls his form in the whirlwind, and 
hovers on the blast of the mountain. 

In Morven dwelt the chief; a beam of war to 
Fingal. His steps in the field w T ere marked in 
blood. Lochlin's sons had fled before his angry 
spear ; but mild was the eye of Calmar ; soft was 
the flow r of his yellow locks : they streamed like 
the meteor of the night. No maid was the sigh 
of his soul : his thoughts were given to friend- 
ship — to dark-haired Orla, destroyer of heroes ! 
Equal were their swords in battle ; but fierce was 
the pride of Orla: gentle alone to Calmar. To- 
gether they dwelt in the cave of Oithona. 

From Lochlin, Swaran bounded o'er the blue 
waves. Erin's sons fell beneath his might. Fin- 
gal roused his chiefs to combat. Their ships 
cover the ocean. Their hosts throng on the green 
hills. They come to the aid of Erin. 

Night rose in clouds. Darkness vails the ar- 
mies : but the blazing oaks gleam through the 
valley. The sons of Lochlin slept: their dreams 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 45 

-were of blood. They lift the spear in thought, 
and Fingal flies. Not so the host of Morven. 
To watch was the post of Qda. Calmar stood 
by his side. Their spears w r ere in their hands. 
Fingal called his chiefs : they stood around. The 
king was in the midst. Gray were his locks, but 
strong was the arm of the king. Age withered 
not his powers. " Sons of Morven/' said the 
hero, " to-morrow we meet the foe. But where is 
Cuthullin, the shield of Erin ? He rests in the 
halls of Tura ; he knows not of our coming. Who 
will speed through Lochlin to the hero, and call 
the chief to arms? The path is by the swords of 
foes, but many are my heroes. They are thun- 
derbolts of war. Speak, ye chiefs ! Who will 



arise 



?" 



u Son of Trenmor ! mine be the deed," said 
dark-haired Orla, " " and mine alone. What is 
death to me? T love the sleep of the mighty, 
but little is the danger. The sons of Lochlin 
dream. I will seek car-borne Cuthullin. If I 
fall, raise the song of bards ; and lay me by the 
stream of Lubar." " And shalt thou fall alone ?" 
said fair-haired Calmar. " Wilt thou leave thy 
friend afar ? Chief of Oithona ! not feeble is my 
arm in fight. Could I see thee die, and not lift 
the spear ? No, QrlgJ ours has been the chase 
of the roebuck, and the feast of shells ; ours be 
the path of danger : ours has been the cave of 
Oithona ; ours be the narrow dwelling on the 
banks of Lubar." a Calmar," said the chief of 
Oithona, " why should thy yellow locks be darkened 
in the dust of Erin ? Let me fall alone. My 
father dwells in his hall of air : he will rejoice in 
his boy ; but the blue-eyed Mora spreads the feast 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

for her son in Morven. She listens to the steps 
of the hunter on the heath, and thinks it is the 
tread of Calmar. Let her not say, f Calmar has 
fallen by the steel of Lochlin : he died with gloomy 
Orla, the chief of the dark brow/ Why should 
tears dim the azure eye of Mora? Why should 
her voice curse Orla, the destroyer of Calmar? 
Live, Calmar. Live to raise my stone of moss ; 
live to revenge me in the blood of Lochlin. Join 
the song of bards above my grave. Sweet will 
be the song of death to Orla, from the voice of 
Calmar. My ghost shall smile on the notes of 
praise." " Orla/' said the son of Mora, " could 
i raise the song of death to my friend ? Could I 
give his fame to the winds ? No, my heart would 
speak in sighs : faint and broken are the sounds 
of sorrow. Orla ! our souls shall hear the song 
together. One~cloud shall be ours on high : the 
bards will mingle the names of Orla and Calmar." 
They quit the circle of the chiefs. Their steps 
are to the host of Lochlin. The dying blaze of 
oak dim twinkles through the night. The north- 
ern star points the path to Tura. Swaran, the 
king, rests on his lonely hill. Here the troops 
are mixed : they frown in sleep ; their shields be- 
neath their heads. Their swords gleam at distance 
in heaps. The fires are faint ; their embers fail in 
smoke. All is hushed ; but the gale sighs on the 
rocks above. Lightly wheel the heroes through 
the slumbering band. Half the journey is past, 
when Mathon, resting on his shield, meets the eye 
of Qrla, It rolls in flame, and glistens through the 
shade. His spear is raised on high. " Why dost 
thou bend thy bow, chief of Oithona ?" said fair- 
haired Calmar : " we are in the midst of foes. Is 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 47 

this a time for delay ?" " It is a time for ven- 
geance/' said Orla of the gloomy brow. " Mathon 
of Lochlin sleeps: seest thou his spear? Its point 
is dim with the gore of my father. The blood of 
Mathon shall reek on mine; but shall I slay him 
sleeping, son of Mora? No! he shall feel his 
wound : my fame shall not soar on the blood of 
slumber. Rise, Mathon, rise ! the son of Connal 
calls ; thy life is his ; rise to combat/ 5 Mathon 
starts from sleep; but did he rise alone? No: 
the gathering chiefs bound on the plain. "Fly! 
Calmar, fly !" said dark-haired Orla. " Mathon 
is mine. I shall die in joy: but Lochlin crowds 
around. Fly through the shade of night." Orla 
turns. The helm of Mathon is cleft;* his shielcl 
falls from his arm ; he shudders in his blood. He 
rolls by the side of the blazing oak. Strumon sees 
him fall : his wrath rises : his weapon glitters on 
the head of Orla; but a spear pierced his eye. 
His brain gushes through the wound, and foams 
on the spear of Calmar. As roll the waves of the 
ocean on two mighty barks of the north, so pour 
the men of Lochlin on the chiefs. As, breaking 
the surge in foam, proudly steer the barks of the 
north, so rise the chiefs of Morven on the scat- 
tered crests of Lochlin. i The din of arms came 
to the ear of Fingal. He strikes his shield ; his 
sons throng around ; the people pour along the 
heath. Ryno bounds in joy. Ossian stalks in his 
arms. Oscar shakes the spear. The eagle wing 
of Fillan floats on the wind. Dreadful is the clang 
of death ! many are the widows of Lochlin. Morven 
prevails in its strength. 

Morn glimmers on the hills ; no living foe is 
seen ; but the sleepers are many ; grim they lie on 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Erin. The breeze of ocean lifts their locks ; yet 
they do not awake. The hawks scream above 
their prey. 

Whose yellow locks wave o'er the breast of a 
chief? Bright as the gold of the stranger, they 
mingle with the dark hair of his friend. 'Tis 
Calmar : he lies on the bosom of CMa. Theirs 
is one stream of blood. Fierce is the look of the 
gloomy Qxla. He breathes not ; but his eye is 
still a flame. It glares in death unclosed. His 
hand is grasped in Calmar's ; but Calmar lives ! 
he lives, though low. "Rise," said the king, 
" rise, son of Mora : 't is mine to heal the wounds 
of heroes. Calmar may yet bound on the hills of 
Morven." 

" Never more shall Calmar chase the deer of 
Morven with QeIV said the hero. "What were 
the chase to me alone ? Who would share the 
spoils of battle with Calmar? Qxla is at rest! 
Rough was thy soul, Qd$ ! yet soft to me as the 
dew of morn. It glared on others in lightning : 
to me a silver beam of night. Bear my sword to 
blue-eyed Mora ; let it hang in my empty hall. 
It is not pure from blood : but it could not save 
Qd&. Lay me w T ith my friend. Raise the song 
when I am dark !" 

They are laid by the stream of Lubar. Four 
gray stones mark the dwelling of Qda and Calmar. 

When Swaran was bound, our sails rose on the 
blue waves. The wind gave our barks to Morven : 
the bards raised the song. 

" What form rises on the roar of clouds? Whose 
dark ghost gleams on the red streams of tempests? 
His voice rolls on the thunder. ? T is Qrl%, the 
brown chief of Oithona. He was unmatched in 



PRONOUNS. 49 

war. Peace to thy soul, OrJa ! thy fame will not 
perish. Nor thine, Calmarl Lovely wast thou, 
son of blue-eyed Mora; but not harmless was thy 
sword. It hangs in thy cave. The ghosts' of 
Lochlin shriek around its steel. Hear thy praise, 
Calmar ! It dwells on the voice of the mighty. 
Thy name shakes on the echoes pf Morven. Then 
raise thy fair locks, son of Mora. Spread them 
on the arch of the rainbow; and smile through the 
tears of the storm." — Byron. 



OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word substituted for a 
noun, to prevent the repetition of the same 
word ; as, Hugh came, but he came too late ; 
Louisa can read, but slie can not write. 

A Pronoun sometimes stands for a sentence, 
or a member of a sentence ; as, If he pursue 
an honest course, it will be for his own 
interest. 

Pronouns are divided into two classes, 
Personal and Relative 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns may be easily known 
by their denoting the persons of the nouns 
for which they stand. 

There are five personal pronouns ; I, thou, 
he, she, it, with their plurals, we, ye or you, 
they. Thou and ye are now confined to the 
solemn style. 
5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Gender has respect only to the third per- 
son singular of pronouns, he, she, it. 

He is masculine; she is feminine; it is 
neuter. 

Myself, yourself or thyself himself herself 
itself and their plurals, are called reciprocal 
or compound personal pronouns, and are gen- 
erally used in apposition with nouns and 
other pronouns. 

Mine j thine, his, hers, our, yours, and theirs, 
often include both the possessor and the thing 
possessed; and in such cases, they should be 
analyzed as Compound Personal Pronouns. 

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 





FIRST 


PERSON. 




Sing. 






Plur. 


Nom. I, 






we, 


Poss. my, 
Obj. me. 






our, 
us. 




SECOND 


PERSON. 




Sing. 






Plur. 


Nom. thou, 
Poss. thy, 
Obj. thee. 






ye or you, 

your, 

you. 




THIRD 


PERSON. 




Mas. Sing. 






Plur. 


Nom. he, 
Poss. his, 






they, 
their, 


Obj. him. 






them. 



PRONOUNS, 51 

THIRD PERSON. 

Fern. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. she, they, ' 

Poss. her, their, 

Obj. her. them. 

THIRD PERSON. 

Neut. Sing. Plur. 

Nom. it, they, 

Poss. its, their, 

Obj. it them. 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in 
general, to a word or phrase going before, 
called the antecedent; as, The man ivho wrote 
the letter. 

The relative pronouns are who, which, and 
that. 

Who relates to persons ; as, The man who 
studies, will increase in knowledge. 

Which is applied to irrational creatures, 
and inanimate things; as, The bird which 
sings ; The rain lohich falls. 

That is applied to both persons and things ; 
as, The man that is honest, will be respected ; 
The tree that grows in the garden. 

That is often used to prevent the too fre- 
quent repetition of who and which. 

Relative Pronouns are not varied on account 
of gender, number, or person. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Who and which are thus declined : 

Nom. Who, Norn. Which, 

Poss. Whose, JPoss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom. Obj. Which. 

Wliat is often used as a compound relative, 
including; both the antecedent and the rela- 
tive, and is equivalent to the thing which; 
as, What he said was true ; that is, the thing 
which he said was true. 

Whoever and Whosoever are also compound 
or double relatives, containing an antecedent 
and a relative ; and should be analyzed like 
the compound what ; as, Whoever reads the 
Bible attentively and impartially, will be 
convinced of its divine origin. 

In this example, whoever is equivalent to 
he who. 

Whoever and whosoever are thus declined : 

Nom. Whoever, Nom. Whosoever, 

Poss. Whosever, Poss. Whosesoever, 

Obj. Whomever. Obj. Whomsoever. 

Who is an interrogative pronoun when 
used in asking questions; as, Who did the 
work? 

Which and ivhat, when used in asking 
questions, lose their pronominal character, 
and become interrogative adjectives ; as, 
Which book did he read? What enemy 
has done this? 



PRONOUNS. 53 

What is sometimes used as an interjection ; 
as, But what ! is thy servant a dog, that he 
should do this? 

Which and ivhat, when associated with ever 
and soever, may be denominated Compound 
Proiiouns. 

SYSTEMATIC OEDEE OF PASSING 
PEESONAL PRONOUNS. 

THE WORDS IN ITALICS ARE PARSED. 
THE FIRST PERSON. 

/ wish to see my friend. 
I is a personal pronoun, of the first per- 
son, singular number, in the nominative case 
to the verb wish, agreeably to Eule 1. A 
noun or a pronoun is in the nominative case 
to the verb of which it is the subject. 

THE SECOND PERSON. 
You should reform. 

You is a personal pronoun, of the second 
person, singular number, in the nominative 
case to the verb should reform, agreeably to 
Rule 1. A noun or a pronoun is in the 
nominative, case to the verb of which it is 
the subject. 

When parsing a pronoun of the first or 
second person, it is not necessary to name 
the person or thing represented, because the 
speaker and person or thing addressed are 
always present and known. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE THIRD PERSON. 

Archimedes was a celebrated geometrician; 
lie was a native of Syracuse in Sicily. 

He is a personal pronoun, and represents 
Archimedes, with which it agrees in gender, 
person, and number, agreeably to Rule 16. 
Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns 
which they represent in gender, person, and 
number ; it is in the nominative case to the 
verb was, agreeably to Rule 1. A noun or 
a pronoun is in the nominative case to the 
verb of which it is the subject. 

THE COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUN. 

The victory is yours. 
Yours is a compound personal pronoun, 
representing both the possessor and the thing 
possessed, and is equivalent to your victory. 
Your is a personal pronoun, of the second 
person, singular number, in the possessive 
case, it possesses victory, and is governed 
by it, agreeably to Rule 4. The possessive 
case is governed by the noun possessed. Vic- 
tory is a noun common, of the neuter gender, 
third person, singular number, in the nomi- 
native case after is, one of the inflections of 
the verb to be, agreeably to Rule 21. The 
verb to be, and its inflections, may have the 
same case after them as before them. 



PRONOUNS. 55 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING RELA- 
TIVE PRONOUNS. 

THE WORDS IN ITALICS ARE PARSED. 

The man who is honest will be respected. 

Who is a relative pronoun, and has man 
for its antecedent, with which it agrees in 
gender, person, and number, agreeably to 
Rule 17. Relative pronouns must agree 
with their antecedents in gender, person, and 
number ; it is in the nominative case to the 
verb is, agreeably to Rule 18. The relative 
is in the nominative case to the verb, when 
there is no intervening nominative/ 

That is the lady whom I taught to write. 

Whom is a relative pronoun, and has lady 
for its antecedent, with which it agrees in 
gender, person, and number, agreeably to 
Rule 17. Relative pronouns must agree 
with their antecedents in gender, person, 
and number ; it is in the objective case, gov- 
erned by the transitive verb taught, agree- 
ably to Rule 19. When there is an inter- 
vening nominative, the relative is governed 
by the following verb, or by some other word 
in its own member of the sentence. 

THE COMPOUND KELATIVE. 

I believe what he said. 
What is a compound relative pronoun, in- 
cluding both the antecedent and the relative, 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and is equivalent to the thing which. Thing, 
the antecedent part of what, is a noun com- 
mon, of the neuter gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, in the objective case governed 
by the transitive verb believe, agreeably to 
Rule 6. Transitive verbs govern the objec- 
tive case. Which, the relative part of what, 
is a relative pronoun, and has thing for its 
antecedent, with which it agrees in gender, 
person, and number, agreeably to Rule 17. 
Relative pronouns must agree with their 
antecedents in gender, person, and number ; 
it is in the objective case governed by the 
transitive verb said, agreeably to Rule 19. 
When there is an intervening nominative, 
the relative is governed by the following 
verb, or by some other word in its own 
member of the sentence. 



WHO INTERROGATIVELY used. 

Who broke that slate? 

Who is a relative pronoun interrogatively 
used ; it is of the third person, singular 
number, in the nominative case to the verb 
broke, agreeably to Rule 18. The relative 
is in the nominative case to the verb, when 
there is no intervening nominative. 

In S4>me constructions, whatever, whatso- 
ever, whichever, and whichsoever precede 
nouns which by transposition become their 



PRONOUNS. 57 

antecedents; as, Luella, select whatever book 
you like best; Hortensia, you may study 
loliicliever science you would prefer. ■ 

Some writers would consider whatever 
and whichever in these examples compound 
relative pronouns; but, as they do not in- 
volve antecedents, they can not with pro- 
priety be denominated compound relatives. 
They may be styled compound pronouns. 
The sentences containing the preceding ex- 
amples, when transposed, will read thus : 
Luella, select the book which you like best ; 
Hortensia, you may study the scienpe which 
you would prefer. 

THE COMPOUND PKONOUN. 

Hortensia, you may study whichever science 
you would prefer. 

Whichever is a compound pronoun, and 
the phrase whichever science is equivalent 
to the science which. Science is a noun 
common, of the neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, in the objective case, gov- 
erned by the transitive verb study, agreeably 
to Rule 6. Transitive verbs govern the ob- 
jective case. Which is a relative pronoun, 
and has science for its antecedent, with which 
it agrees in gender, person, and number, agree- 
ably to Rule 17. Relative pronouns must 
agree with their antecedents in gender, per- 
son, and number; it is in the objective case 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

governed by the transitive verb would prefer, 
agreeably to Rule 19. When there is an 
intervening nominative, the relative is gov- 
erned by the following verb, or by some 
other word in its own member of the sen- 
tence. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

I heard the man read, and he read well. That 
lady is an admirable scholar ; she has written on 
various subjects; her style is easy and often sub- 
lime. I saw your brother, and gave him your 
letter. I taught Eliza to read, and you taught 
her to write. I can do the work myself. You 
may go yourself. He will come himself. She 
prefers studying by herself. We can do the work 
ourselves. You may go yourselves. They will 
come themselves. If pupils study, they will im- 
prove. He is an accomplished gentleman; his 
literary attainments are of the first order. The 
rose is beautiful, but it soon fades. A tree is 
known by its fruit. My friend who resides in 
Columbus, has come to see me. He is the man 
with whom I studied astronomy. Those men whom 
you saw are merchants ; they reside in Lexington. 
He was a patriot whose name will not be forgotten. 
This is the horse which I purchased from you. 
The lady that wrote this novel has gone to Europe. 
I knew what he would say. He was pleased with 
what he heard. You know what must necessarily 
follow. Who wrote this letter ? Chesterfield. 
Whose knife have you? Frank's. Whom did 
you meet ? Alfred. Whoever opposes the religion 
of the Bible, is a traitor to God, and an enemy to 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 59 

mankind. Whosoever will be a true follower of 
Christ, must renounce the sinful pleasures of the 
world. Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing 
well. Arabella, read whichever book entertains 
you best. That boy lost his own hat, and stole 
mine. My pen is better than yours. The joys 
of Heaven will soon be thine. Your shawl is 
larger than hers, but hers is finer than yours. 
Their buildings are better than ours ; but our farm 
is better than theirs. 



AUTHENTICITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 

Whoever, with knowledge and impartiality, ex- 
amines the question, whether the writings of the 
Old Testament are authentic, will undoubtedly be 
compelled to reply in the affirmative. 

No one impostor can have forged them all : this 
is proclaimed by every page of the Old Testament. 
What diversity in language and expression ! Isaiah 
does not write like Moses, nor Jeremiah like Eze- 
kiel; and between these and each of the minor 
prophets, as relates to style, there is a great gulf 
fixed. The grammatical structure of language in 
the books of Moses contains much that is peculiar; 
in the book of Judges occur provincialisms and 
barbarisms; Isaiah molds common words into new 
forms; Jeremiah and Ezekial abound in Chaldaisms. 
In short, as we proceed from the writers w4io assume 
an early date, to those who are more recent, we 
observe the language in a gradual decline, until it 
sinks at last into phrases of mere Chaldee. 

Then what diversity in the march of thought 
and range of imagery ! The stringed instrument 
resounds when struck by Moses and Isaiah; and 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is soft in intonation at the touch of David. The 
muse of Solomon swells in the splendor of the 
most voluptuous court ; but her sister, artlessly 
appareled, strays with David along rivulets and 
banks, over plains, and among flocks and herds. 
One poet is original, as Isaiah, Joel, and Habak- 
kuk ; another imitative, as Ezekiel. One wanders 
the untrodden path of genius, while at his side 
another loiters along the beaten footway. From 
one proceed flashes of surprising knowledge ; and 
about his neighbor not a spark of learning has 
ever kindled. Through the most ancient writer 
glow strong Egyptian tints; in his successors they 
become more and more languid v and in the latest 
they are entirely extinct. 

Finally, even in manners, there is the most beau- 
tiful gradation ! At firsf all is plain and simple ; 
as in Homer, and at the present day, among the 
Bedouin Arabs. This ingenuous simplicity is gradu- 
ally lost in luxury and effeminacy, and at last 
wholly disappears in the voluptuous court of Solo- 
mon. There is nowhere a sudden transition ; but 
throughout an advance gradually progressive. None 
but ignorant or thoughtless skeptics can admit 
that the Old Testament has been forged by one 
impostor. 

"But, perhaps, several impostors have made 
common cause, and in a late century, have at the 
same time forged our Scriptures of the Old Testa- 
ment." Yet how could they forge in a manner so 
conformable to the progress of the human mind? 
How was it possible, in modern times, to form the 
language of Moses ? This evidently transcends all 
human powers ! In fine, one writer always sup- 
poses the existence of another; they could not 



ADJECTIVES. 61 

therefore have arisen, all at the same time : it 
must have been in succession. 

" Perhaps, then, at different periods there have 
been such impostors, who proceed in the introduc- 
tion of spurious writings, just where their forging 
predecessors had left off. Hence may be explained 
the allusions of the writers to each other ; hence 
that striking rise in all the parts !" But how w T as 
it possible that no one discovered and exposed the 
imposition, and so branded the impostor, that after 
ages might be secure? How T could a nation re- 
peatedly, at different times, permit itself to be 
deceived ? And what purpose could such an im- 
postor have? To exalt the Hebrew nation? — Then 
from his praise result most grievous defamations; 
for the Hebrew people, according to the Old Tes- 
tament, act at all times a most unworthy part !- — 
Or to degrade the Hebrews? — Yet, in this case, 
how could the nation permit books to be obtruded 
on them that defamed their character, and told, in 
plain words, how often foreign conquerers may 
have trodden them under foot? — Schroeder., 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word used to express 
the quality of a noun, or to define the extent 
of its meaning; as, A wise man, a good man, 
a great man, a benevolent man, a man, the 
man, one man, two men, this man, these men, 
that man, those men, each man, every man, 
any man, some men, all men. 

Adjectives have no inflections but of com- 
parison. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adjectives have three degrees of compari- 
son, the Positive, the Comparative, and the 
Superlative. 

The Positive Degree expresses the quality 
of a noun, without any increase or diminu- 
tion ; as, Gold, hot, violent. 

The Comparative Degree increases or 
lessens the positive in signification ; as, 
Colder, hotter, more violent ; less cold, less hot, 
less violent. 

The Superlative Degree increases or 
lessens the positive to the highest or lowest 
degree; as, Coldest, hottest, most violent; 
least cold, least hot, least violent. 

Monosyllables are generally compared by 
the addition of er and est ; as, Kinder, kind- 
est ; but when the word ends in e, we add r 
only in the comparative, and st in the super- 
lative ; as, Wiser, wisest. 

Words of more than one syllable are gen- 
erally compared by the adverbs more and 
most ; as, More ruinous, most ruinous. 

Words of two syllables ending in y, and 
accented on the first, may be compared 
by er and est; as, Lovely, lovelier, love~ 
liest. 

The termination ish expresses a degree 
below the positive; as, Whitish, blachish, 
reddish, bluish, brownish, sweetish, saltish. 
These are by some called diminutive adjec- 
tives. 



ADJECTIVES. 63 

The adverb rather is used to express a small 
degree of a quality; as, Rather profuse. 

Some adjectives are irregular with respect 
to comparison ; as. Good, better, best ; bad, 
worse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, 
more, most; near nearer, nearest or next ; and 
some others. 

Adjectives preceded by very, exceedingly, 
extremely, divinely, and the like, are in the 
superlative degree of eminence ; as, Very 
good, exceedingly perverse, extremely punc- 
tilious, divinely fair. Some adjectives do 
not properly admit of comparison; as, Round, 
square, spherical, rectangular 9 perpendicular, 
supreme, universal, etc. 

Numeral adjectives are of two kinds, 
Cardinal and Ordinal. 

The Cardinal are used in counting; as, 
One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, 
nine, ten, etc. 

The Ordinal are used in numbering ; as, 
First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, 
eighth, ninth, tenth, etc. 

When participles express the qualities of 
nouns without conveying any idea of time, 
they are called participial adjectives ; as, A 
reading community ; an oppressed people. • 

An adjective placed without a noun, and 
preceded by the, becomes a noun in significa- 
tion; as, The good will be rewarded; The 
bad will be punished. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Nouns, when used to qualify other nouns, 
become adjectives ; as, A steel pen, a silver 
spoon, a gold watch. 

The following classes of definitive or speci- 
fying adjectives, are by some authors impro- 
perly denominated Adjective Pronouns. 

Pronouns stand for nouns, and never be- 
long to them : Adjectives belong to nouns, 
and never stand for them ; hence the phrase, 
pronominal adjective, is an absurdity. 

The Definitive or Specifying Adjectives 
may be divided into three classes ; the Dis- 
tributive, the Demonstrative, and the Inde- 
finite, 

The Distributive Adjectives relate to the 
persons or things that make up a number, 
each taken separately. They are, each, every, 
either, and sometimes neither ; as, Each of his 
parents is kind ; Every person should consider 
his latter end ; I did not speak to either of 
them ; Neither of them is present. 

The Demonstrative Adjectives are such 
as definitely point out the persons or things 
to which they relate ; as, This man will ac- 
company me ; That book is well bound ; 
These men will accompany me ; Those books 
are well bound. 

That is sometimes used as a relative pro- 
noun, sometimes as a demonstrative adjective, 
and sometimes as a conjunction. 

It is a relative pronoun when it relates to 



ADJECTIVES. 65 

an antecedent; as, The time that is past, will 
never return. 

It is a demonstrative adjective when^ it 
precisely points out a person or thing; as, 
Do you see that man ? Did you plant that 
tree ? 

It is a conjunction when it denotes a conse- 
quence or a conclusion ; as, He was so vain, 
that he was universally despised ; She said, 
that she was in trouble; Study the Scriptures, 
that you may become wise unto salvation. 

Yon, former, and latter, are by some authors 
classed with the demonstrative adjectives. 

The Indefinite Adjectives are those which 
express their subjects indefinitely : they are, 
Same, any, one, all, such, another, both, some, 
other. A or an, and the, are properly classed 
with adjectives. 

A becomes an before a vowel or a silent 
h ; as, An oyster, an hour. 

A or an generally limits the noun to one 
of a kind, but to no particular one ; as, A 
man, a bird, an acorn. This adjective is 
used before collective nouns ; as, A host, an 
army. 

It may be placed before plural nouns when 
they are preceded by the adjectives, few, 
great many, dozen, hundred, thousand, mil- 
lion ; as, A few trees, a great many men, a 
dozen apples, a hundred books, a thousand 
houses, a million dollars. 
6 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The adjective the refers to a particular 
noun, and points it out in a definite manner ; 
as. The man, the boy, the city. 

It belongs to nouns in both numbers ; as, 
The river, the rivers; The mountain, the 
mountains. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING 
ADJECTIVES. 

THE WORDS IN ITALICS ARE PARSED. 

We should shun profane company. 
Profane is an adjective in the positive 
degree of comparison ; positive profane, com- 
parative more profane, superlative most pro- 
fane, and belongs to company, agreeably to 
Kule 26. Adjectives belong to nouns ex- 
pressed or understood. 

ADJECTIVES DENOTING UNITY. 
Every hour should be improved. 
Every is a distributive adjective denoting 
unity, and belongs to hour in the singular 
number, agreeably to Kule 27. Adjectives 
denoting unity, belong to nouns in the sin- 
gular number only. 

ADJECTIVES IMPLYING PLURALITY. 

Those men have returned. 

Those is a demonstrative adjective imply- 
ing plurality, and belongs to men in the 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 67 

plural number, agreeably to Rule 28. Ad- 
jectives implying plurality belong to nouns 
in the plural number. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Italy has a pleasant climate. Platina is heavier 
than gold. The Amazon is the largest river in the 
world. Each of his brothers is in good health. 
Every man is accountable to his Creator. Either 
of these pens is worth three dollars. Neither of 
these boys can write. This gentleman will conduct 
you to the hotel. That lady plays on the melodeon. 
These books were purchased in Boston. Those 
flowers are very beautiful. Some persons render 
themselves very disagreeable by the use of tobacco. 
Can any philanthropist oppose the cause of tempe- 
rance ? One of the prisoners has escaped. My 
brother has purchased another farm. I have now 
heard the other side of the question. Such argu- 
ments prove nothing. A diamond will cut glass. 
An idea is an image of the mind. The moon bor- 
rows her light from the sun. The North star has 
often been the traveler's guide. The earth revolves 
round the sun. The English language has been 
styled the language of liberty. A hundred men 
will sometimes chase a thousand. 

THE BIBLE. 

In addition to the intrinsic excellences of the 
Bible, which give it, considered merely as a human 
production, powerful claims to the attention of 
persons of taste and learning, there are various 
circumstances of an adventitious nature, which 
render it peculiarly interesting to a reflecting 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mind. Among these circumstances, we may per- 
haps, not improperly, mention its great antiquity. 

Whatever may be said of its inspiration, some 
of the books which compose it are unquestionably 
the most ancient literary compositions extant, and 
perhaps the most ancient that ever were written ; 
nor is it very improbable, that letters were first 
employed in recording some parts of them, and 
that they were written in the language first spoken 
by man. 

It is also not only the most ancient book, but 
the most ancient monument of human exertion, 
the eldest offspring of human intellect now in ex- 
istence. Unlike the other works of man, it inherits 
not his frailty. All the cotemporaries of its in- 
fancy have long since perished, and are forgotten ; 
yet this wonderful volume still survives. Like the 
fabled pillars of Seth, which are said to have bid 
defiance to the deluge, it has stood for ages, un- 
moved in the midst of that flood which sweeps 
away men with their labors into oblivion. 

That these circumstances render it an interest- 
ing object of contemplation, it is needless to mark. 
Were there now in existence a tree, which was 
planted ; an edifice, which was erected ; or any 
monument of human ingenuity, which was formed 
at that early period, in which some parts of the 
Bible were written, would it not be contemplated 
with the keenest interest; carefully preserved as a 
precious relic; and considered as something little 
less than sacred ? 

With what emotions, then, will a thoughtful 
mind open the Bible ; and what a train of inter- 
esting reflections is it, in this view, calculated to 
excite! While we contemplate its antiquity, ex- 



ADVERBS. 69 

ceeding that of every object around us, except the 
works of God ; and view it in anticipation, as con- 
tinuing to exist unaltered until the end of time ; 
must we not feel almost irresistibly impelled' to 
venerate it, as proceeding originally from Him, 
who is yesterday, to-day, and forever the same ; 
whose works, like his years, fail not? — Payson. 

OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs are words used to modify the 
sense of verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs ; as, Malvina walks gracefully; 
I saw a man riding slowly ; Ossian was a very 
sublime poet ; The lady reads too fast. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

1. Of Manner or Quality; as, Slowly, 
wisely, foolishly, faithfully, intensely, recently, 
justly, unjustly, fluently, etc. Adverbs of 
quality are very numerous ; and they are 
usually formed by adding ly to an adjective, 
or changing le into ly; as, Fine, finely; able, 
ably. 

2. Of Time; as, Now, when, then; seldom, 
often, soon; never, ever, while, whilst; still, 
already, ago, since, yet ; once, twice, thrice; 
hereafter, again, hitherto; yesterday, to-day, 
to-morrow ; lately, presently, etc. 

3. Of Place; as, Here, where, there; hither, 
thither, whither; hence, thence, whence; no- 
where, somewhere, whithersoever, etc. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

4. Of Direction; as, Upward, downward, 
"backward, forward, heavenward^ homeward, 
hitherivard, thitherward, whitherward, etc. 

5. Of Uncertainty; as, Perhaps, perchance, 
per adventure. 

6. Of Affirmation; as, Yea, yes, verily, 
undoubtedly, tmdy, indeed, certainly, doubt- 
less, etc. 

7. Of Negation ; as, No, nay, not, nmoise. 

8. Of Comparison; as, More, most, less, 
least; icell, better, best; as, so, thus, very, 
rather, exceedingly, extremely, almost, nearly. 

9. Of Interrogation ; as, Why, when, how, 
where, wherefore, whither, whence. 

10 Of Number; as, First, secondly, thirdly, 
fourthly, fifthly, etc. 

11. Of Quantity; as, Much, enough, little, 
sufficiently. 

The adverbs there, now, and icell, are often 
used as expletives; as, There is a man on 
the street ; Now, I hope, you will remember 
your promise ; Well, Samuel, where have you 
been? 

In these examples, the adverbs there, now, 
and well, can not properly be said to qualify 
any word, and in all such constructions they 
may be disposed of as pleonastic adverbs. 

Some words partake both of the nature 
of adverbs and conjunctions, and are called 
adverbial conjunctions. 

An adverbial conjunction connects two 



SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING ADVERBS. 71 

clauses of a sentence, and usually qualifies 
a verb in each clause, so connected ; as, My 
friend had come before the mail arrived. \ 

The conjunctive adverbs are before, ere, 
after, till, as, when, while, and a few others. 

An adverbial phrase consists of two or 
more words, which taken together perform 
the office of an adverb ; as, On high, a little, 
the better, the more, at once, at most, in vain. 
Adverbs sometimes modify prepositions ; as, 
The bullet passed almost through the board. 

Adverbs, like adjectives, have three de- 
grees of comparison; as, Soon, sooner f soonest ; 
grajcefully, 7nore gracefully, most gracefidly. 

Some adverbs do not admit of the degrees 
of comparison; as, Now, then, when, where, 
there, etc. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING THE 
ADVERB. 

Eosetta reads fluently. 
Fluently is an adverb of manner, in the 
positive degree of comparison; positive flu- 
ently, comparative more fluently, superlative 
most fluently, and qualifies the verb reads, 
agreeably to Eule 32. Adverbs qualify 
verbs, participles, adjectives, and other ad- 
verbs. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

The corn grows fast. The lady sings very 
sweetly. Robespierre, the position which you de- 
fend so violently, is grossly absurd. We moved 
slowly and cautiously down the dark ravine. I 
will see him when he returns. Fernando was here 
yesterday. Where has he gone ? I will be there 
before the mail arrives. You have go&e too far; 
you can not return too soon. I am now ready to 
accompany you. There was a man sent from God, 
whose name was John. 

CHARACTER OF THE PURITANS. 

The Puritans were men whose minds had derived 
a peculiar character from the daily contemplation 
of superior beings and eternal interests. Not con- 
tent with acknowledging, in general terms, an over- 
ruling Providence, they habitually ascribed every 
event to the will of the Great Being, for whose 
power nothing was too vast, for whose inspection 
nothing was too minute. To know him, to serve 
him, to enjoy him, was with them the great end 
of existence. 

They rejected with contempt the ceremonious 
homage which other sects substituted for the pure 
worship of the soul. Instead of catching occa- 
sional glimpses of the Deity through an obscuring 
vail, they aspired to gaze full on the intolerable 
brightness, and to commune with him face to face. 
Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial 
distinctions. The difference between the greatest 
and meanest of mankind seemed to vanish, when 
compared with the boundless interval which sepa- 
rated the whole race from him, on whorn their own 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 73 

eyes were constantly fixed. They recognized no 
title to superiority but his favor ; and, confident 
of that favor, they despised all the accomplish- 
ments and all the dignities of the world. If they 
were unacquainted with the works of philosophers 
and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles 
of God. If their names were not found in the 
registers of heralds, they felt assured that they 
were recorded in the Book of Life. If their steps 
w r ere not accompanied by a splendid train of me- 
nials, legions of ministering angels had charge 
over them. Their palaces were houses not made 
with hands ; their diadems crowns of glory which 
should never fade away ! 

On the rich and the eloquent, on n6bles and 
priests, they looked down with contempt ; for they 
esteemed themselves rich in a more precious trea- 
sure, and eloquent in a more sublime language ; 
nobles by the right of an earlier creation, and 
priests by the imposition of a mightier hand. The 
very meanest of them was a being, to whose fate a 
mysterious and terrible importance belonged; on 
whose slightest action the spirits of light and dark- 
ness looked with anxious interest, who had been 
destined, before heaven and earth were created, to 
enjoy a felicity which should continue when heaven 
and earth should have passed away. Events, which 
short-sighted politicians ascribed to earthly causes, 
had been ordained on his account. For his sake, 
empires had risen, and flourished, and decayed. 
For his sake, the Almighty had proclaimed his will 
by the pen of the Evangelist, and the harp of the 
prophet. He had been rescued by no common de- 
liverer from the grasp of no common foe. He had 
been ransomed by the sweat of no vulgar agony, 
7 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by the blood of no earthly sacrifice. It was for 
him that the sun had been darkened ; that the 
rocks had been rent ; that the dead had arisen ; 
that all nature had shuddered at the sufferings of 
her expiring God ! 

Thus the Puritan was made up of two different 
men — the one all self-abasement, penitence, grati- 
tude, passion ; the other, proud, calm, inflexible, 
sagacious. He prostrated himself in the dust be- 
fore his Maker; but he set his foot on the neck 
of his king. In his devotional retirement, he prayed 
with convulsions, and groans, and tears. He was 
half-maddened by glorious or terrible illusions. 
He heard the lyres of angels, or the tempting 
whispers of fiends. He caught a gleam of the 
beatific vision, or woke, screaming from dreams of 
everlasting fire. Like Vane, he thought himself 
intrusted with the scepter of the milennial year. 
Like Fleetwood, he cried, in the bitterness of his 
soul, that Grod had hid his face from him. But 
when he took his seat in the council, or girt on his 
sword for war, these tempestuous workings of the 
soul had left no perceptible trace behind them. 
People who saw nothing of the Puritans but their 
uncouth visages, and heard nothing from them but 
their groans and their hymns, might laugh at them. 
But those had little reason to laugh, who encoun- 
tered them in the hall of debate, or in the field of 
battle. 

The Puritans brought to civil and military affairs 
a coolness of judgment, and an immutability of 
purpose, which some writers have thought incon- 
sistent with their religious zeal, but which were, in 
fact, the necessary effects of it. The intensity of 
their feelings on one subject made them tranquil 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 75 

on every other. One overpowering sentiment had 
subjected to itself pity and hatred, ambition and 
fear. Death had lost its terrors, and pleasure its 
charms. They had their smiles and their tears, 
their raptures and their sorrows, but not for the 
things of this world. Enthusiasm had made them 
stoics, had cleared their minds from every vulgar 
passion and prejudice, and raised them above the 
influence of danger and of corruption. It some- 
times might lead them to pursue unwise ends, but 
never to choose unwise means. They went through 
the world like Sir Artegale's iron man Talus with 
his flail, crushing and trampling down oppressors, 
mingling with human beings, but having neither 
part nor lot in human infirmities ; insensible to 
fatigue, to pleasure, and to pain ; not to be pierced 
by any weapon, not to be withstood by any barrier. 

Such we believe to have been the character of 
the Puritans. We perceive the absurdity of their 
manners ; we dislike the gloom of their domestic 
habits ; w T e acknowledge that the tone of their 
minds was often injured by straining after things 
too high for mortal reach ; and we know that, in 
spite of their hatred of popery, they too often fell 
into the vices of that bad system, intolerance and 
extravagant austerity. 

Yet, when all circumstances are taken into con- 
sideration, we do not hesitate to pronounce them 
a brave, a wise, an honest, and a useful body. — 
Edin. Rev. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is a word so called, because 
it partakes of the nature of a verb and also 
of an adjective. 

Verbs have three participles, the Present, 
the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect. 

The Present Participle, ends in ing, and 
always expresses existence, action or endur- 
ance of action, as continued or progressing; 
as, Being, walking, being seen. 

The Perfect Participle denotes being or 
action which is finished; as, Been, written, 
driven. 

The Compound Perfect Participle implies 
a prior completion of the being, action, or 
endurance of action. 

It is formed by placing having before a 
perfect participle; as, Having been, having 
seen, having loved. 

In the passive voice we place having been 
before the perfect participle ; as, Having been 
loved, having been seen, having been written. 

The participle terminating in ing, is fre- 
quently used as a verbal or participial noun, 
having the nominative and objective cases, 
but not the possessive. 

It often retains the regimen of the verb 
from which it is derived, and governs an ob- 
jective case. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 77 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING THE 
PARTICIPLE. 

I saw an eagle flying. 

Flying is a present participle derived 
from the verb to fly, present flying, perfect 
flown, compound perfect having flown, and 
refers to eagle, agreeably to Rule 29. Par- 
ticiples refer to nouns or pronouns expressed 
or understood. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

I heard the lady playing on the piano-forte. 
We have seen many a promising youth* ruined by 
the use of intoxicating liquors. Isadora having 
recited her lesson, I dismissed the class. I saw a 
herd of cattle grazing on the plain. The rain 
having ceased, we pursued our journey. The 
vessel sunk beneath the rolling billows. To the 
infidel the Bible is a sealed book. 

HAPPY EFFECTS OF CONTEMPLATING THE WORKS OF 
NATURE. 

With the Divine works we are in every place 
surrounded. We can cast our eyes nowhere, with- 
out discerning the hand of Him who formed them, 
if the grossness of our minds will only allow us to 
behold Him. Let giddy and thoughtless men turn 
aside a little from the haunts of riot. Let them 
stand still, and contemplate the wondrous works of 
God; and make trial of the effect which such con- 
templation would produce. It were good for them 
that, even independently of the Author, they were 
more acquainted with his works; good for them, 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that from the societies of loose and dissolute men, 
they would retreat to the scenes of nature ; would 
oftener dwell among them, and enjoy their beauties. 
This would form them to the relish of uncorrupted, 
innocent pleasures ; and make them feel the value 
of calm enjoyments, as superior to the noise and 
turbulence of licentious gayety. From the har- 
mony of nature, and of nature's works, they 
w r ould learn to hear sweeter sounds than those 
which arise from " the viol, the tabret, and the 
pipe." 

But to higher and more serious thoughts these 
works of nature give occasion, when considered in 
conjunction with the Creator who made them. 
Let me call on you, my friends, to catch some in- 
terval of reflection, some serious moment, for look- 
ing with thoughtful eye on the world around you. 
Lift your view to that immense arch of heaven 
which encompasses you above. Behold the sun in 
all his splendor rolling over your head by day ; 
and the moon by night, in mild and serene ma- 
jesty, surrounded with the host of stars which 
present to your imagination an innumerable mul- 
titude of worlds. Listen to the awful voice of 
thunder. Listen to the roar of the tempest and 
the ocean. Survey the wonders that fill the earth 
which you inhabit. Contemplate a steady and 
powerful Hand, bringing round spring and sum- 
mer, autumn and winter, in regular course ; dec- 
orating this earth with innumerable beauties, di- 
versifying it with innumerable inhabitants ; pour- 
ing forth comforts on all that live ; and at the 
same time, overawing the nations with the violence 
of the elements, when it pleases the Creator to 
let them forth. After you have viewed yourselves 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 79 

as surrounded with such a scene of wonders ; after 
you have beheld, on every hand, so astonishing a 
display of majesty united with wisdom and good- 
ness ; are you not seized with solemn and serious 
awe? Is there not something which whispers 
within, that to this great Creator reverence and 
homage are due, by all the rational beings whom 
he has made? Admitted to be spectators of his 
works, placed in the midst of so many great and 
interesting objects, can you believe that you were 
brought hither for no purpose, but to immerse 
yourselves in gross and brutal, or, at least, in 
trifling pleasures ; lost to all sense of the wonders 
you behold ; lost to all reverence of that God who 
gave you being, and who has erected this amaz- 
ing fabric of nature, on which you look only with 
stupid and unmeaning eyes ? — No : let the scenes 
which you behold prompt corresponding feelings. 
Let them awaken you from the degrading intoxi- 
cation of licentiousness, into nobler emotions. 
Every object which you view in nature, whether 
great or small, serves to instruct you. The star 
and the insect, the fiery meteor and the flower of 
spring, the verdant field and the lofty mountain, 
all exhibit a supreme Power, before which you 
ought to tremble and adore ; all preach the doc- 
trine, all inspire the spirit of devotion and rever- 
ence. Regarding, then, the work of the Lord, let 
rising emotions of awe and gratitude call forth 
from your souls such sentiments as these : " Lord, 
wherever I am, and whatever I enjoy, may I never 
forget thee, as the Author of nature! May I 
never forget that I am thy creature and thy sub- 
ject! In this magnificent temple of the universe, 
where thou hast placed me, may I ever be thy 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

faithful worshiper; and may the reverence and the 
fear of God be the first sentiments of my heart I" — 

BLAIR. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

The Conjunction is a part of speech used 
to join words or sentences together ; as, " He 
rolls his form in the whirlwind, and hovers 
on the blast of the mountain ;" " We fought, 
but the foe prevailed." 

Conjunctions often begin sentences after a 
full period, denoting some relation between 
sentences in the general tenor of discourse ; 
as, u Not unknown are the deeds of our 
fathers. But w r ho shall now lead the war 
before the race of kings ?" 

There are two classes of conjunctions ; the 
Copulative and Disjunctive. 

The Copulative Conjunction denotes an 
addition, a cause or a supposition ; as, Emma 
can read and write ; " Here will I dwell, for 
I have desired it ;" I will go if he will ac- 
company me. 

The Disjunctive Conjunction denotes op- 
position of meaning ; as, Alice can read, hut 
she can not write. 

The following are the principal conjunc- 
tions : Copulative ; and, if that, both, then, 
since, for, because, therefore, wherefore. 

Both is sometimes used as a conjunction, 
and sometimes as an adjective. Then may 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 81 

be used, either as a conjunction, or an adverb. 
For may be either a conjunction or a prepo- 
sition. 

List of Disjunctive Conjunctions; hut, or, 
nor, than, lest, though, unless, either neither, 
yet, notwithstanding. 

Some conjunctions are followed by corres- 
ponding conjunctions; as, Though, yet; 
" Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he 
became poor." Neither, nor ; " Neither he nor 
I am able to compass it." 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING THE 
CONJUNCTION. 

Teachers teach, and pupils learn. 

And is a copulative conjunction, and con- 
nects two members of the sentence; con- 
junctions connect words and sentences. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Figs and oranges grow in warm climates. If you 
go to Baltimore, I will accompany you. He said 
that he could not go. Albert understands how to 
manage both public and private concerns. Let me 
alone, for I will weep yet longer. I respect him, 
because he is honest. He said that he would do 
the work ; but he did not. That boy regards 
neither threats nor promises. Either Emeline or 
Clarissa will visit us to-day. Grammar is a more 
useful science than Music. Watch ye and pray, 
lest ye enter into temptation. Though he slay me, 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

yet will 1 trust in him. I can not return with you 
unless you wait till I finish this business. 

THE EARTH HAPPILY ADAPTED TO THE NATURE OF MAN. 

The universe may be considered as the palace in 
which the Deity resides ; and the earth, as one of 
its apartments. In this, all the meaner races of 
animated nature mechanically obey him, and stand 
ready to execute his commands, without hesitation. 
Man alone is found refractory : he is the only being 
endued with a power of contradicting these man- 
dates. The Deity was pleased to exert superior 
power in creating him a superior being ; a being 
endued with a choice of good and evil ; and capable, 
in some measure, of cooperating with his own in- 
tentions. Man, therefore, may be considered as a 
limited creature, endued with powers imitative of 
those residing in the Deity. He is thrown into a 
world that stands in need of his help ; and he has 
been granted a power of producing harmony from 
partial confusion. 

If, therefore, we consider the earth as allotted 
for our habitation, we shall find that much has been 
given us to enjoy, and much to amend; that we 
have ample reasons for our gratitude, and many for 
our industry. In those great outlines of nature, to 
which art can not reach, and where our greatest 
efforts must have been ineffectual, God himself has 
finished everything with amazing grandeur and 
beauty. Our beneficent Father has considered 
these parts of nature as peculiarly his own ; as 
parts which no creature could have skill or strength 
to amend: and he has, therefore, made them in- 
capable of alteration, or of more perfect regularity. 
The heavens and the firmament show the wisdom 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 83 

and the glory of the Workman. Astronomers, who 
are best skilled in the symmetry of systems, can 
find nothing there that they can alter for the better. 
God made these perfect, because no subordinate 
being could correct their defects. 

When, therefore, we survey nature on this side, 
nothing can be more splendid, more correct, or 
amazing. We there behold a Deity residing in the 
midst of a universe, infinitely extended every way, 
animating all, and cheering the vacuity with his 
presence. We behold an immense and shapeless 
mass of matter, formed into worlds by his power, 
and dispersed at intervals, to which even the im- 
agination can not travel. In this great theater of 
his glory, a thousand suns, like our own, animate 
their respective systems, appearing and vanishing 
at Divine command. We behold our bright lumin- 
ary, fixed in the center of its system, wheeling its 
planets in times proportioned to their distances, 
and at once dispensing light, heat, and action. 
The earth also is seen with twofold motion; pro- 
ducing by the one, the change of seasons ; and, by 
the other, the grateful vicissitudes of day and 
night. With what silent magnificence is all this 
performed! with what seeming ease! The works 
of art are exerted with interrupted force ; and their 
noisy progress discovers the obstructions they re- 
ceive ; but the earth, with a silent, steady rotation, 
successively presents every part of its bosom to 
the sun ; at once imbibing nourishment and light 
from that parent of vegetation and fertility. 

But not only provisions of heat and light are 
thus supplied ; the whole surface of the earth is 
covered with a transparent atmosphere, that turns 
with its motion, and guards it from external injury. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The rays of the sun are thus broken into a genial 
warmth ; and, while the surface is assisted, a gentle 
heat is produced in the bowels of the earth, which 
contributes to cover it with verdure. Waters also 
are supplied in healthful abundance, to support 
life, and assist vegetation. Mountains rise, to di- 
versify the prospect, and give a current to the 
stream. Seas extend from one continent to the 
other, replenished with animals, that may be turned 
to human support ; and also serving to enrich the 
earth with a sufficiency of vapor. Breezes fly 
along the surface of the fields, to promote health 
and vegetation. The coolness of the evening in- 
vites to rest; and the freshness of the morning 
renews for labor. 

Such are the delights of the habitation that has 
been assigned to man : without any of these, he 
must have been wretched ; and none of these could 
his own industry have supplied. But while, on the 
one hand, many of his wants are thus kindly fur- 
nished, there are, on the other hand, numberless 
inconveniences to excite his industry. This habi- 
tation, though provided with all the conveniences 
of air, pasturage, and water, is but a desert place, 
without human cultivation. The lowest animal 
finds more conveniences in the wilds of nature, than 
he who boasts himself their lord. The whirlwind, 
the inundation, and all the asperities of the air, 
are peculiarly terrible to man, who knows their 
consequences, and, at a distance, dreads their ap- 
proach. The earth itself, where human art has not 
pervaded, puts on a frightful, gloomy appearance. 
The forests are dark and tangled ; the meadows are 
overgrown with rank weeds ; and the brooks stray 
without a determined channel. Nature, that has 



PREPOSITIONS. 85 

been kind to every lower order of beings, seems 
to have been neglectful with regard to him : to 
the savage, uncontriving man, the earth is an 
abode of desolation, where his shelter is insuffi J 
cient, and his food precarious. 

A world thus furnished with advantages on one- 
side, and inconveniences on the other, is the proper 
abode of reason, and the fittest to exercise the in- 
dustry of a free and a thinking creature. These 
evils, which art can remedy, and prescience guard 
against, are a proper call for the exertion of his 
faculties ; and they tend still more to assimilate 
him to his Creator. God beholds, with pleasure, 
that being which he has made, converting the 
wretchedness of his natural situation into a .theater 
of triumph ; bringing all the headlong tribes of 
nature into subjection to his will; and producing 
that order and uniformity upon earth, of which his 
own heavenly fabric is so bright an example. — ■ 
Goldsmith. 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are used to connect words, 
and to show the relation between them ; as, 
He went from Boston to Washington ; Mary 
writes with a pen; The book lies on the 
table. 

We call this class of words Prepositions, 
because they generally precede the nouns or 
pronouns which they govern. 

Every preposition must govern an objec- 
tive case ; as, Come to me ; He is beyond the 
Ohio. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The same word may be used either as a 
preposition or an adverb; as. The tree stands 
before the door ; He paid me before the money 
was due : in the first example, the word 
before is a preposition; in the second, it is 
an adverb. 

A preposition usually connects a verb, 
noun, or pronoun to the noun, or pronoun 
which it governs ; as, He went to Columbus ; 
Give the violin to the boy ; James took the 
apple from me. 

Every preposition must have an antece- 
dent term of relation, and a subsequent ; as, 
John stands on the floor. In this example, 
the preposition on connects the verb stands 
to the noun floor, and shows a relation be- 
tween its antecedent term John, and its sub- 
sequent floor. 

In parsing a preposition, the difference 
between connection and relation should be 
carefully observed. 

Nouns and pronouns are the only parts of 
speech between which a prepositional rela- 
tion can exist. 

The following is a list of the principal 
prepositions : 



A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

About Across Along Among 1 

Above After Amid 1 Amongst J 

According to Against Amidst J Around 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 



87 



At 


Concerning 


On 


To 


Athwart 


Down 


Over 


Touching 


Before 


During 


Out of 


Toward 


Behind 


For 


Past 


Under 


Below 


From 


Regarding 


Underneath 


Beneath 


In 


Respecting 


Unto 


Beside 


Into 


Round 


Up 


Besides 


Instead of 


Since 


Upon 


Between 


Near 


Through 


With 


BefrftVxt 


Nigh 


Throughout Within 


Beyond 


Of 


Till 


Without 


By 


Off 







SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING THE 
PREPOSITION. 

Diophantus was the reputed inventor of 
algebra. 

Of is a preposition, and shows the relation 
between inventor and algebra. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

This book is the property of the teacher. An- 
thony stands on the floor. Arthur cuts grass with 
a scythe. Bernard is sick of fever. He went to 
town with his brothers; but he came home with- 
out them. 



SPIRIT OE THE PSALMS. 



Among all compositions, these alone deserve the 
name of sacred lyrics. These alone contain a poetry 
that meets the spiritual nature in all its moods and 
all its wants, which strengthens virtue with glorious 
exhortations, gives angelic eloquence to prayer, and 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

almost rises to the seraph's joy in praise. In dis- 
tress and fear, they breathe the low, sad murmur 
of complaint ; in penitence, they groan with the 
agony of the troubled soul. They have a gentle 
music for the peace of faith ; in adoration, they 
ascend to the glory of creation and the majesty of 
God. For assemblies or for solitude, for all that 
gladdens and all that grieves, for our heaviness and 
despair, for our remorse and our redemption, we 
find in these divine harmonies the loud or the low 
expression. Great has been their power in the 
world. They resounded amid the courts of the 
tabernacle ; they floated through the lofty and 
solemn spaces of the temple. They were sung 
with glory in the halls of Zion ; they were sung 
with sorrow by the streams of Babel. And when 
Israel had passed away, the harp of David was still 
awakened in the Church of Christ. In all the eras 
and ages of that church, from the hymn which first 
it whispered in an upper chamber, until its anthems 
filled the earth, the inspiration of the royal prophet 
has enraptured its devotions and ennobled its rituals. 
Chorussd by the winds of heaven, they have swelled 
through God's own temple of the sky and stars ; 
they have rolled over the broad deserts of Asia, in 
the matins and vespers of ten thousand hermits. 
They have rung through the deep valleys of the 
Alps, in the sobbing voices of the forlorn Wal- 
denses ; through the steeps and caves of the Scot- 
tish Highlands, in the rude chanting of the Scottish 
Covenanters; through the woods and wilds of prim- 
itive America, in the heroic hallelujahs of the early 
Pilgrims. — Anon. 



INTERJECTIONS. 89 



OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are words used to express 
sudden emotion, or strong excitement of the 
mind ; as, " Go with thy rustling wind, 
breeze ! sigh on Malvina's tomb." 

Pure interjections are nothing more than 
mere instinctive sounds of the voice, pro- 
duced by some excitement of the mind. 
They are but few in number, and scarcely 
deserve a classification in written language. 

The free use of interjections in ordinary 
conversation, generally indicates thoughtless- 
ness and imbecility of intellect. 

Any word may become an interjection 
when used with emotion; as, Strange! as- 
tonishing! shocking! 

A detached phrase, indicating strong feel- 
ing, becomes an interjection; as, Ungrateful 
wretch ! 

The following list contains the principal 
interjections : 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS 

Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alack ! away ! aha ! begone ! 
hark ! ho ! ha ! he ! hail ! halloo ! hum ! hush ! 
huzza ! hist ! hey-dey ! lo ! ! oh ! strange ! 
brave ! pshaw ! see ! well-a-day ! etc. 

8 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING THE 
INTERJECTION. 

man, consider thy ways ! 
is an interjection, and is used to express 
sudden emotion, or strong excitement of the 
mind. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

They mourned over him, saying, Alas my 
brother ! The king was much moved, and went 
up to the chamber over the gate, and wept: and 
as he went, thus he said, my son Absalom ! my 
son, my son Absalom ! would God I had died for 
thee, Absalom, my son, my son ! 

Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the 
waters, and he that hath no money ; come ye, buy 
and eat; yea, come, buy wine and milk without 
money, and without price. Wherefore do ye spend 
money for that which is not bread, and your labor 
for that tvhich satisfieth not? Hearken diligently 
unto me, and eat ye that which is good, and let 
your soul delight itself in fatness. Incline your 
ear, and come unto me : hear, and your soul shall 
live ; and I will make an everlasting covenant with 
you, even the sure mercies of David. Behold, I 
have given him /or a witness to the people, a leader 
and commander to the people. Behold, thou shalt 
call a nation thai thou knowest not; and nations 
that knew not thee shall run unto thee, because of 
the Lord thy God, and for the Holy One of Israel; 
for he hath glorified thee. Seek ye the Lord while 
he may be found, call ye upon him while he is near. 
Let the wicked forsake his way, and the unrighteous 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 91 

man his thoughts : and let him return unto the 
Lord, and he will have mercy upon him ; and to 
our God, for he will abundantly pardon. For my 
thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are ydur 
ways my ways, saith the Lord. For as the heavens 
are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher 
than your ways, and my thoughts than your 
thoughts. For as the rain cometh down, and the 
snow, from heaven, and returneth not thither, but 
watereth the -earth, and maketh it bring forth and 
bud, that it may give seed to the sower, and bread 
to the eater ; so shall my word be that goeth forth 
out of my mouth : it shall not return unto me void ; 
but it shall accomplish that which I please, and it 
shall prosper in the thing whereto I sent it. For 
ye shall go out with joy, and be led forth w r ith 
peace : the mountains and the hills shall break 
forth before you into singing, and all the trees of 
the field shall clap their hands. Instead of the 
thorn shall come up the fir tree, and instead of 
the brier shall come up the myrtle tree : and it 
shall be to the Lord for a name, and for an ever- 
lasting sign, that shall not be cut off. — Isaiah. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Alonzo writes an elegant hand. The letter was 
written by Alonzo. He has been laboring in the 
field. Your brother had gone to New York before 
your letter came to this office. The wicked shall 
perish. Narcissa will visit us to-morrow. He will 
have crossed the river before sunset. If he come, 
I will see him. If he did the work, he must be 
rewarded. If you have finished your business, we 
will return. If you had written to me, I would 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

have given you the necessary information. If my 
father will go to Philadelphia, I must accompany 
him. Unless you shall have finished the work 
before Charles returns, he will dismiss you from 
his service. The lady can analyze a sentence. 
Pupils should study their lessons well. They may 
have deserved censure. Ladies, you should have 
prepared your lessons better. Anna, bring me a 
pen. Boys, study your lessons. We ought to 
obey God's commandments. They ought to have 
returned sooner. Remember thy Creator in the 
days of thy youth. To lie is despicable. To die 
a martyr for the truth is glorious. To do nothing, 
is to serve the devil. To confess the truth, I was 
in fault. He died a Christian. Let him read. I 
saw the tree fall. Man is mortal. The well is 
forty feet deep. The house is worth a thousand 
dollars. Woe worth the day. That man is thirty 
years old. We mounted the dark-bosomed ship of 
the king, spread its white sails to the winds, and 
plowed through the foam of ocean. The moon, 
regent of the silent night, gleamed majestic in the 
blue vault of heaven, and seemed pleased to bathe 
her side in the trembling wave. Bend thy blue 
course, stream ! round the narrow plain of 
Lutha. Soon hast thou set, Malvina, daughter 
of generous Toscar! But thou risest, like the beam 
of the east, among the spirits of thy friends, where 
they sit, in their stormy halls, the chambers of the 
thunder. There is a joy in grief, when peace dwells 
in the breast of the sad. Why, thou wanderer un- 
seen ! thou bender of the thistle of Lora ; why, 
thou breeze of the valley, hast thou left mine ear? 
Daughter of heaven, fair art thou ! the silence of 
thy face is pleasant ! Thou comest forth in love- 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 93 

liness. The stars attend thy blue course in the 
east. The clouds rejoice in thy presence, moon! 
Whence are thy beams, sun ! thy everlasting 
light ? Thou comest forth in thy awful beauty ; 
the stars hide themselves in the sky ; the moon, 
cold and pale, sinks in the western wave ; but thou 
thyself movest alone. Who can be a companion 
of thy course? The oaks of the mountains fall; 
the mountains themselves decay with years ; the 
ocean shrinks and grows again; the moon herself 
is lost in heaven : but thou art forever the same, 
rejoicing in the brightness of thy course. When 
the world is dark with tempests, when thunder rolls 
and lightning flies, thou lookest in thy beauty from 
the clouds, and laughest at the storm. ' But to 
Ossian thou lookest in vain, for he beholds thy 
beams no more : whether thy yellow hair flows on 
the eastern clouds, or thou tremblest at the gates 
of the west. But thou art, perhaps, like me, for a 
season ; thy years will have an end. Thou shalt 
sleep in thy clouds, careless of the voice of the 
morning. Exult then, sun, in the strength of 
thy youth ! age is dark and unlovely ; it is like 
the glimmering light of the moon, when it shines 
through broken clouds, and the mist is on the hills : 
the blast of the north is on the plain, the traveler 
shrinks in the midst of his journey. 

god's first temples. 

The groves were God's first temples. Ere man. 

learned 
To hew the shaft, and lay the architrave, 
And spread the roof above them — ere he framed 
The lofty vault, to gather and roll back 
The sound of anthems — in the darkling wood, 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Amid the cool and silence, he knelt down 

And offered to the Mightiest solemn thanks 

And supplication. For his simple heart 

Might not resist the sacred influences, 

That, from the stilly twilight of the place, 

And from the gray old trunks, that, high in heaven, 

Mingled their mossy boughs, and from the sound 

Of the invisible breath, that swayed at once 

All their green tops, stole over him, and bowed 

His spirit with the thought of boundless Power 

And inaccessible Majesty. Ah ! why 

Should we, in the world's riper years, neglect 

God's ancient sanctuaries, and adore 

Only among the crowd, and under roofs 

That our frail hands have raised ? Let me, at least, 

Here, in the shadow of this aged wood, 

Offer one hymn ; thrice happy, if it find 

Acceptance in his ear. 

Father, thy hand 
Hath reared these venerable columns ; thou 
Didst weave this verdant roof. Thou didst look 
Upon the naked earth, and forthwith rose [down 
All these fair ranks of trees. They in thy sun 
Budded, and shook their green leaves in thy breeze, 
And shot toward heaven. The century-living crow, 
Whose birth was in their tops, grew old, and died 
Among their branches ; till, at last, they stood, 
As now they stand, massy, and tall, and dark, 
Fit shrine for humble worshiper to hold 
Communion with his Maker. Here are seen 
No traces of man's pomp or pride ; no silks 
Rustle, no jewels shine, nor envious eyes 
Encounter ; no fantastic carvings show 
The boast of our vain race to change the form 
Of thy fair works. But thou art here j thou fill'st 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 95 

The solitude. Thou art in the soft winds 
That run along the summits of these trees 
In music ; thou art in the cooler breath, 
That, from the inmost darkness of the place, 
Comes, scarcely felt; the barky trunks, the ground, 
The fresh, moist ground, are all instinct with thee. 

Here is continual worship ; nature, here, 
In the tranquillity that thou dost love, 
Enjoys thy presence. Noiselessly, around, 
From perch to perch, the solitary bird 
Passes ; and yon clear spring, that, midst its herbs, 
Wells softly forth, and visits the strong roots 
Of half the mighty forest, tells no tale 
Of all the good it does. Thou hast not left 
Thyself without a witness, in these shades,' 
Of thy perfections. Grandeur, strength, and grace 
Are here to speak of thee. This mighty oak — 
By whose immovable stem I stand, and seem 
Almost annihilated — not a prince, 
In all the proud old world beyond the deep, 
E'er wore his crown as loftily as he 
Wears the green coronal of leaves, with which 
Thy hand has graced him. Nestled at his root 
Is beauty, such as blooms not in the glare 
Of the broad sun. That delicate forest flower, 
With scented breath, and look so like a smile, 
Seems, as it issues from the shapeless mold, 
An emanation of the indwelling Life, 
A visible token of the upholding Love, 
That are the soul of this wide universe. 

My heart is awed within me, when I think 
Of the great miracle that still goes on, 
In silence, round me — the perpetual work 
Of thy creation, finished, yet renewed 
Forever. Written on thy works, I read 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The lesson of thy own eternity. 
Lo ! all grow old and die : but see, again, 
How, on the faltering footsteps of decay, 
Youth presses — ever gay and beautiful youth — 
In all its beautiful forms. These lofty trees 
Wave not less proudly that their ancestors 
Molder beneath them. Oh ! there is not lost 
One of earth's charms : upon her bosom yet, 
After the flight of untold centuries, 
The freshness of her far beginning lies, 
And yet shall lie. Life mocks the idle hate 
Of his arch enemy Death ; yea, seats himself 
Upon the sepulcher, and blooms and smiles, 
And of the triumphs of his ghastly foe 
Makes his own nourishment. For he came forth 
From thine own bosom, and shall have no end. 

There have been holy men, who hid themselves 
Deep in the woody wilderness, and gave 
Their lives to thought and prayer, till they outlived 
The generation born with them, nor seemed 
Less aged than the hoary trees and rocks 
Around them ; and there have been holy men, 
Who deemed it were not well to pass life thus. 
But let me often to these solitudes 
Retire, and, in thy presence, reassure 
My feeble virtue. Here, its enemies, 
The passions, at thy plainer footsteps, shrink 
And tremble, and are still. 

God ! when thou 
Dost scare the world with tempests, set on fire 
The heavens with falling thunderbolts, or fill, 
With all the waters of the firmament, 
The swift, dark whirlwind, that uproots the woods, 
And drowns the villages ; when,, at thy call, 
Uprises the great deep, and throws himself 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 97 

Upon the continent, and overwhelms 

Its cities ; who forgets not, at the sight 

Of these tremendous tokens of thy power, ] 

His pride, and lays his strifes and follies by ? 

Oh ! from the sterner aspects of thy face 

Spare me and mine ; nor let us need the wrath 

Of the mad, unchained elements to teach 

Who rules them. Be it ours to meditate, 

In these calm shades, thy milder majesty, 

And to the beautiful order of thy works 

Learn to conform the order of our lives. — Bryant. 

COURSE OE TIME. — BOOK I. 

Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom 
All things seem as they are ; Thou, who of old 
The prophet's eye unsealed, that nightly saw 
While heavy sleep fell down on other men, 
In holy vision tranced, the future pass 
Before him, and to Judah's harp attuned 
Burdens which made the pagan mountains shake, 
And Zion's cedars bow — inspire my song ; 
My eye unscale ; me what is substance teach, 
And shadow what, while I of things to come, 
As past, rehearsing, sing the Course of Time, 
The second birth, and final doom of man. 

The muse, that soft and sickly wooes the ear 
Of love, or chanting loud in windy rhyme 
Of fabled hero, raves through gaudy tale 
Not overfraught with sense, I ask not : such 
A strain befits not argument so high. 
Me thought, and phrase severely sifting out 
The whole idea, grant, uttering as 't is 
The essential truth — time gone, the righteous saved, 
The wicked damned, and providence approved. 
9 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hold my right hand, Almighty ! and me teach 
To strike the lyre, but seldom struck, to notes 
Harmonious with the morning stars, and pure 
As those by sainted bards and angels sung, 
Which wake the echoes of eternity— 
That fools may hear and tremble, and the wise 
Instructed listen, of ages yet to come. 

Long was the day, so long expected, past 
Of the eternal doom, that gave to each 
Of all the human race his due reward ; [ceased 

The sun — earth's sun, and moon, and stars, had 
To number seasons, days, and months, and years 
To mortal man ; hope was forgotten, and fear, 
And time, with all its chance and change, and smiles, 
And frequent tears, and deeds of villainy, 
Or righteousness — once talked of much as things 
Of great renown, was now but ill remembered ; 
In dim and shadowy vision of the past, 
Seen far remote, as country, which has left 
The traveler's speedy step, retiring back 
From morn till even ; and long eternity 
Had rolled his mighty years, and with his years 
Men had grown old : the saints, all home returned 
From pilgrimage, and w T ar, and weeping, long 
Had rested in the bowers of peace, that skirt 
The stream of life ; and long, alas ! how long 
To them it seemed, the wicked who refused 
To be redeemed, had w T andered in the dark 
Of hell's despair, and drunk the burning cup 
Their sins had filled with everlasting woe. 

Thus far the years had rolled, which none but God 
Doth number, when two sons, two youthful sons 
Of Paradise, in conversation sweet, 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 99 

(For thus the heavenly muse instructs me, wooed 

At midnight hour with offering sincere 

Of all the heart, poured out in holy prayer.) 

High on the hills of immortality, 

Whence goodliest prospect looks beyond the walls 

Of heaven, walked, casting oft their eye far thro' 

The pure serene, observant, if returned 

From errand duly finished, any came, 

Or any, first in virtue now complete, 

From other worlds arrived, confirmed in good. 

Thus viewing, one they saw, on hasty wing 
Directing toward heaven his course ; and now 
His flight ascending near the battlements 
And lofty hills on which they walked, approached, 
For round and round, in spacious circuit wide, 
Mountains of tallest stature circumscribe 
The plains of Paradise, whose tops, arrayed 
In uncreated radiance, seem so pure, 
That naught but angel's foot, or saint's elect 
Of God, may venture there to walk ; here oft 
The sons of bliss take morn or evening pastime, 
Delighted to behold ten thousand worlds 
Around their suns revolving in the vast 
External space, or listen to the harmonies 
That each to other in its motion sings. 
And hence, in middle heaven remote, is seen 
The mount of God in awful glory bright. 
Within, no orb create, of moon, or star, 
Or sun, gives light ; for God's own countenance, 
Beaming eternally, gives light to all ; 
But farther than these sacred hills his will 
Forbids its flow — too bright for eyes beyond. 
This is the last ascent of Virtue ; here 
All trials end, and hope ; here perfect joy, 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

With perfect righteousness, which to these hights 
Alone can rise, begins, above all fall. 

And now on wing of holy ardor strong, 
Hither ascends the stranger, borne upright ; 
For stranger he did seem, with curious eye 
Of nice inspection round surveying all, 
And at the feet alights of those that stood 
His coming, who the hand of welcome gave, 
And the embrace sincere of holy love ; 
And thus, with comely greeting kind, began. 

Hail, brother ! hail, thou son of happiness ! 
Thou son beloved of God ! welcome to heaven ! 
To bliss that never fades ! thy day is past 
Of trial, and of fear to fall. Well done, 
Thou good and faithful servant ; enter now 
Into the joy eternal of thy Lord. 
Come with us, and behold far higher sight 
Than e'er thy heart desired, or hope conceived. 

See, yonder is the glorious hill of God, 

'Bove angels' gaze in brightness rising high. 

Come, join our wing, and we will guide thy flight 

To mysteries of everlasting bliss ; — 

The tree, and fount of life, the eternal throne 

And presence-chamber of the King of kings. 

But what concern hangs on thy countenance, 

Unwont within this place ? Perhaps thou deem'st 

Thyself unworthy to be brought before 

The always Ancient one ? so are we too 

Unworthy ; but our God is all in all, 

And gives us boldness to approach his throne. 

Sons of the Highest ! citizens of heaven ! 
Began the new arrived, right have you judged — 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 101 

Unworthy, most unworthy is your servant, 
To stand in presence of the King, or hold 
Most distant and most humble place in this 
Abode of excellent glory unrevealed. 
But God Almighty be forever praised, 
Who, of his fullness, fills me with all grace 
And ornament, to make me in his sight 
Well pleasing, and accepted in his court. 
But if your leisure waits, short narrative 
Will tell, why strange concern thus overhangs 
My face, ill-seeming here, and haply too, 
Your elder knowledge can instruct my youth, 
Of what seems dark and doubtful unexplained. 

Our leisure waits thee; speak — and what we can, 
Delighted most to give delight, we will ; 
Though much of mystery yet to us remains. 

Virtue — I need not tell, when proved, and full 
Matured— inclines us up to God, and heaven, 
By law of sweet compulsion strong, and sure, 
As gravitation to the larger orb 
The less attracts, thro' matter's whole domain ; 
Virtue in me was ripe — I speak not this 
In boast : for what I am to God I owe, 
Entirely owe, and of myself am naught. 
Equipped, and bent for heaven, I left yon world, 
My native seat, which scarce your eye can reach, 
Rolling around her central sun, far out, 
On utmost verge of light : but first to see 
What lay beyond the visible creation, 
Strong curiosity my flight impelled. 
Long was my way and strange. I passed the bounds 
Which God doth set to light, and life, and love ; 
Where darkness meets with day, where order meets 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Disorder dreadful, waste and wild ; and down 
The dark, eternal, uncreated night, 
Ventured alone. Long, long, on rapid wing, 
I sailed through empty, nameless regions vast, 
Where utter Nothing dwells, unformed and void. 
There neither eye, nor ear, nor any sense 
Of being most acute, finds object ; there 
For aught external still you search in vain. 
Try touch, or sight, or smell : try what you will, 
You strangely find naught but yourself alone. 
But why should I in words attempt to tell 
What that is like which is — and yet — is not? 
This past, my path descending still me led 
O'er unclaimed continents of desert gloom 
Immense, where gravitation shifting, turns 
The other way ; and to some dread, unknown, 
Infernal center downward weighs : and now, 
Far traveled from the edge of darkness, far 
As from that glorious mount of God to light's 
Remotest limb — dire sights I saw, dire sounds 
I heard ; and suddenly before my eye 
A wall of fiery adamant sprung up — 
Wall mountainous, tremendous, flaming high, 
Above all flight of hope. I paused, and looked ; 
And saw, where'er I looked upon that mound, 
Sad figures traced in fire — not motionless — 
But imitating life. One I remarked 
Attentively ; but how shall I describe 
What naught resembles else my eye hath seen ? 
Of worm or serpent kind it something looked, 
But monstrous, with a thousand snaky heads, 
Eyed each with double orbs of glaring wrath; 
And with as many tails, that twisted out 
In horrid revolution, tipped with stings ; 
And all its mouths, that wide and darkly gaped, 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 103 

And breathed most poisonous breath, had each a 

sting, 
Forked, and long, and venomous, and sharp ; 
And in its writhings infinite, it grasped » 

Malignantly what seemed a heart, swollen, black, 
And quivering with torture most intense ; 
And still the heart, with anguish throbbing high, 
Made effort to escape, but could not ; for 
Howe'er it turned, and oft it vainly turned, 
These complicated foldings held it fast. 
And still the monstrous beast with sting of head 
Or tail transpierced it, bleeding evermore. 
What this could image, much I searched to know, 
And while I stood, and gaz^d, and wondered long, 
A voice, from whence I knew not, for no ojie 
I saw, distinctly whispered in my ear 
These words — This is the Worm that never dies. 

Fast by the side of this unsightly thing 
Another was portrayed, more hideous still ; 
Who sees it once shall wish to see 't no more. 
Forever undescribed let it remain ! 
Only this much I may or can unfold — 
Far out it thrust a dart that might have made 
The knees of terror quake, and on it hung, 
Within the triple barbs, a being pierced 
Thro' soul and body both : of heavenly make 
Original the being seemed, but fallen, 
And worn and wasted with enormous woe. 
And still around the everlasting lance 
It writhed convulsed, and uttered mimic groa 
And tried and wished, and ever tried and wisn. . 
To die ; but could not die — Oh, horrid sight ! 
I trembling gazed, and listened, and heard this voice 
Approach my ear — This is Eternal Death ! 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Nor these alone — upon that burning wall, 
In horrible emblazonry, were limned 
All shapes, all forms, all modes of wretchedness, 
And agony, and grief, and desperate woe. 
And prominent in characters of fire, 
Where'er the eye could light, these words you read, 
" Who comes this way — behold, and fear to sin I" 
Amazed I stood ; and thought such imagery 
Foretokened, within, a dangerous abode. 
But yet to see the worst a wish arose ; 
For virtue, by the holy seal of God 
Accredited and stamped, immortal all, 
And all invulnerable, fears no hurt. 
As easy as my wish, as rapidly 
I thro' the horrid rampart passed, unscathed 
And unopposed ; and, poised on steady wing, 
I hovering gazed. Eternal Justice ! Sons 
Of God ! tell me, if ye can tell, what then 
I saw, what then I heard. Wide was the place, 
And deep as wide, and ruinous as deep. 
Beneath I saw a lake of burning fire, 
With tempest tost perpetually, and still 
The waves of fiery darkness 'gainst the rocks 
Of dark damnation broke, and music made 
Of melancholy sort ; and overhead, 
And all around, wind warred with wind, storm howled 
To storm, and lightning, forked lightning, crossed, 
And thunder answered thunder, muttering sounds 
Of sullen wrath ; and far as sight could pierce, 
Or down descend in caves of hopeless depth, 
Thro' all that dungeon of unfading fire, 
I saw most miserable beings walk, 
Burning continually, yet unconsumed ; 
Forever wasting, yet enduring still ; 
Dying perpetually, yet never dead. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 105 

Some wandered lonely in the desert flames. 
And some in fell encounter fiercely met, 
With curses loud, and blasphemies, that made 
The cheek of darkness pale ; and as they fought, y 
And cursed, and gnashed their teeth, and wished to 

die, 
Their hollow eyes did utter streams of woe. 
And there were groans that ended not, and sighs 
That always sighed, and tears that ever wept, 
And ever fell, but not in Mercy's sight. 
And Sorrow, and Repentance, and Despair, 
Among them walked, and to their thirsty lips 
Presented frequent cups of burning gall. 
And as I listened, I heard these beings curse 
Almighty God, and curse the Lamb, and curse 
The Earth, the Resurrection-morn, and seek, 
And ever vainly seek, for utter death. 
And to their everlasting anguish still 
The thunders from above responding spoke 
These words, which thro' the caverns of perdition, 
Forlornly echoing, fell on every ear — 
" Ye knew your duty, but ye did it not." 
And back again recoiled a deeper groan. 
A deeper groan ! Oh, what a groan w r as that ! 
I waited not, but swift on speediest wing, 
With unaccustomed thoughts conversing, back 
Retraced my venturous path from dark to light, 
Then up ascending, long ascending up, 
I hasted on ; tho' whiles the chiming spheres, 
By God's own finger touched to harmony, 
Held me delaying — till I here arrived, 
Drawn upward by the eternal love of God, 
Of wonder full, and strange astonishment, 
At what in yonder den of darkness dwells, 
Which now your higher knowledge will unfold. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They answering said, to ask and to bestow 
Knowledge, is much of heaven's delight; and now 
Most joyfully what thou requir'st.we would; 
For much of new and unaccountable 
Thou bring'st ; something indeed we heard before, 
In passing conversation slightly touched, 
Of such a place ; yet rather to be taught 
Than teaching, answer what thy marvel asks, 
We need ; for we ourselves, tho' here, are but 
Of yesterday — creation's younger sons. 
But there is one, an ancient bard of Earth, 
Who, by the stream of life sitting in bliss, 
Has oft beheld the eternal years complete 
The mighty circle round the throne of God ; 
Great in all learning, in all wisdom great, 
And great in song ; whose harp in lofty strain 
Tells frequently of what thy wonder craves, 
While round him gathering stand the youth of heaven 
With truth and melody delighted both ; 
To him this path directs, an easy path, 
And easy flight will bring us to his seat. 

So saying, they linked hand in hand, spread out 
Their golden wings, by living breezes fanned, 
And o'er heaven's broad champaign sailed serene 
O'er hill and valley, clothed with verdure green 
That never fades ; and tree, and herb, and flower 
That never fades ; and many a river, rich 
With nectar, winding pleasantly, they passed ; 
And mansion of celestial mold, and work 
Divine. And oft delicious music, sung 
By saint and angel bands that walked the vales, 
Or mountain-tops, and harped upon their harps, 
Their ear inclined, and held by sweet constraint 
Their wing ; not long, for strong desire awaked 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 107 

Of knowledge that to holy use might turn, 

Still pressed them on to leave what rather seemed 

Pleasure, due only when all duty's done. 

And now beneath them lay the wished-for spot, 
The sacred bower of that renowned bard ; 
That ancient bard, ancient in days and song ; 
But in immortal vigor young, and young 
In rosy health — to pensive solitude 
Retiring oft, as was his wont on earth. 

Fit was the place, most fit for holy musing. 
Upon a little mount, that gently rose, 
He sat, clothed in white robes ; and o'er his head 
A laurel tree, of lustiest, eldest growth, 
Stately and tall, and shadowing far and wide — 
Not fruitless, as on earth, but bloomed, and rich 
With frequent clusters, ripe to heavenly taste- 
Spread its eternal boughs, and in its arms 
A myrtle of unfading leaf embraced ; 
The rose and lily, fresh with fragrant dew, 
And every flower of fairest cheek, around 
Him smiling flocked ; beneath his feet, fast by, 
And round his sacred hill, a streamlet walked. 
Warbling the holy melodies of heaven ; 
The hallowed zephyrs brought him incense sweet : 
And out before him opened, in prospect long, 
The river of life, in many a winding maze 
Descending from the lofty throne of God, 
That with excessive glory closed the scene. 

Of Adam's race he was, and lonely sat, 
By chance that day, in meditation deep, 
Reflecting much of Time, and Earth, and Man : 
And now to pensive, now to cheerful notes, 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He touched a harp of wondrous melody ; 
A golden harp it was, a precious gift, 
Which, at the day of judgment, with the crown 
Of life, he had received from God's own hand, 
Reward due to his service done on earth. 

He sees their coming, and with greeting kind, 
And welcome, not of hollow, forged smiles, 
And ceremonious compliment of phrase, 
But of the heart sincere, into his bower 
Invites. Like greeting they returned; not bent 
In low obeisancy, from creature most 
Unfit to creature ; but with manly form 
Upright, they entered in ; though high his rank, 
His wisdom high, and mighty his renown. 
And thus deferring all apology. 
The two their new companion introduced. 

Ancient in knowledge ! — bard of Adam's race ! 
We bring thee one, of us inquiring what 
We need to learn, and with him wish to learn — 
His asking will direct thy answer best. 

Most ancient bard ! began the new arrived, 
Few words will set my wonder forth, and guide 
Thy wisdom's light to what in me is dark. 

Equipped for heaven, I left my native place; 
But first beyond the realms of light I bent 
My course ; and there, in utter darkness, far 
Remote, I beings saw forlorn in woe, 
Burning continually, yet unconsumed. 
And there were groans that ended not, and sighs 
That always sighed, and tears that ever wept, 
And ever fell, but not in Mercy's sight ; 
And still I heard these wretched beings curse 
Almighty God, and curse the Lamb, and curse 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 109 

The Earth, the Resurrection-morn, and seek, 

And ever vainly seek, for utter death : 

And from above, the thunders answered still, 

" Ye knew your duty, but ye did it not/ 5 y 

And everywhere throughout that horrid den, 

I saw a form of Excellence, a form 

Of beauty without spot, that naught could see 

And not admire — admire and not adore. 

And from its own essential beams it gave 

Light to itself, that made the gloom more dark; 

And every eye in that infernal pit 

Beheld it still; and from its face, how fair! 

how exceeding fair ! forever sought, 

But ever vainly sought, to turn away. 

That image, as I guess, was Virtue, for , 

Naught else hath God given countenance so fair. 

But w T hy in such a place it should abide ? 

What place it is ? What beings there lament ? 

Whence came they? and for what their endless 

groan ? 
Why curse they God ? why seek they utter death ? 
And chief, what means the Resurrection-morn? 
My youth expects thy reverend age to tell. 

Thou rightly deem'st, fair youth, began the bard: 
The form thou saw'st was Virtue, ever fair. 
Virtue, like God, whose excellent majesty, 
Whose glory virtue is, is omnipresent ; 
No being, once created rational, 
Accountable, endowed with moral sense, 
With sapience of right and wrong endowed, 
And charged, however fallen, debased, destroyed, 
However lost, forlorn, and miserable ; 
In guilt's dark shrouding wrapt however thick; 
However drunk, delirious, and mad, 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

With sin's full cup ; and with whatever damned 
Unnatural diligence it work and toil. 
Can banish Virtue from its sight, or once 
Forget that she is fair. Hides it in night, 
In central night ; takes it the lightning's wing, 
And flies forever on, beyond the bounds 
Of all ; drinks it the maddest cup of sin ; 
Dives it beneath the ocean of despair; 
It dives, it drinks, it flies, it hides in vain. 
For still the eternal beauty, image fair, 
Once stampt upon the soul, before the eye 
All lovely stands, nor will depart; so God 
Ordains — and lovely to the worst she seems, 
And ever seems ; and as they look, and still 
Must ever look: upon her loveliness, 
Remembrance dire of what they were, of what 
They might have been, and bitter sense of what 
They are, polluted, ruined, hopeless, lost, 
With most repenting torments rend their hearts. 
So God ordains — their punishment severe, 
Eternally inflicted by themselves. 
'T is this — this Virtue hovering evermore 
Before the vision of the damned, and in 
Upon their monstrous moral nakedness 
Casting unwelcome light, that makes their woe, 
That makes the essence of the endless flame. 
Where this is, there is Hell, darker than aught 
That he, the bard three-visioned, darkest saw. 

The place thou sawst was hell; the groans thou 
heardst 
The wailings of the damned, of those who would 
Not be redeemed, and at the judgment day, 
Long past, for unrepented sins were damned. 
The seven loud thunders which thou heardst, declare 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. Ill 

The eternal wrath of the Almighty God. 

But whence, or why they came to dwell in woe, 

Why they curse God, what means the glorious morn 

Of Resurrection, these a longer tale \ 

Demand, and lead the mournful lyre far back 

Through memory of sin and mortal man ; 

Yet haply not rewardless w^e shall trace 

The dark disastrous years of finished Time. 

Sorrows remembered sweeten present joy. 

Nor yet shall all be sad; for God gave peace, 

Much peace, on earth, to all who feared his name. 

But first it needs to say, that other style 
And other language than thy ear is wont, 
Thou must expect to hear, the dialect 
Of man. For each in heaven a relish holds 
Of former speech, that points to whence he came. 
But whether I of person speak, or place, 
Event or action, moral or divine ; 
Or things unknown compare to things unknown ; 
Allude, imply, suggest, apostrophize ; [moods 

Or touch, when wandering through the past, on 
Of mind thou never feltst ; the meaning still, 
With easy apprehension, thou shalt take. 
So perfect here is knowledge, and the strings 
Of sympathy so tuned, that every word 
That each to other speaks, though never heard 
Before, at once is fully understood, 
And every feeling uttered, fully felt. 

So shalt thou find, as from my various song, - 
That backward rolls o'er many a tide of years, 
Directly or inferred, thy asking : thou 
And wondering doubt, shalt learn to answer, while 
I sketch in brief the history of Man. — Pollok. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SYNTAX. 



Syntax is that part of Grammar which 
teaches the proper arrangement of words in 
the construction of sentences. Its principal 
parts are two, Concord and Government. 

In Syntax, Concord is the agreement 
which one word has with another, in gen- 
der, number, person, or case. 

Government is the power which one word 
has over another, in directing its case, num- 
ber, person, mood, or tense. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, 
making complete sense ; as, / respect my 
friend. 

Sentences are divided into simple and 
compound. A simple sentence contains one 
nominative and one finite verb; as, God is 
great, 

A finite verb is a verb that is limited in 
number and person by a nominative. 

A verb in the infinitive mood, has no 
nominative, and in respect to number and 
person, is without limitation. 

A compound sentence contains two or more 
simple sentences joined together; as, God is 
great, and ought to be revered. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 113 

Every sentence must contain at least one 
nominative and a finite verb. 

If the verb in the sentence- be transitive, 
it must necessarily have an objective as well 
as a nominative case* 

A phrase consists of two or more words 
properly arranged, making sometimes part 
of a sentence, and sometimes a w T hole sen- 
tence. 

Adjuncts are words used in a sentence to 
restrict, illustrate, or amplify the force of 
other w r ords 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 

RULE I. 

A noun or a pronoun is in the nominative 

case to the verb of which it is the subject ; 

as, The wind blows; The tide rises; She 

reads well. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
SONG OF THE STARS. 

When the radiant morn of creation broke, 
And the world in the smile of God awoke, 
And the empty realms of darkness and death 
Were moved through their depths by his mighty 
And orbs of beauty, and spheres of flame, [breath, 
From the void abyss, by myriads came, 
In the joy of youth, as they darted away- 
Through the widening wastes of space to play, 
Their silver voice in chorus rung; 
And this is the song the bright ones sung : — 
10 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Away, away ! through the wide, wide sky — 

The fair blue fields that before us lie — 

Each sun. with the worlds that around him roll, 

Each planet, poised on her turning pole, 

With her isles of green, and her clouds of white, 

And her waters that lie like fluid light. 

" For the source of glory uncovers his face, 
And the brightness o'erflows the unbounded space; 
And we drink as we go the luminous tides 
In our ruddy air and our blooming sides. 
Lo ! yonder the living splendors play ; 
Away, on our joyous path, away ! 

" Look, look ! through our glittering ranks afar, 
In the infinite azure, star after star, 
How they brighten and bloom as they swiftly pass ! 
How the verdure runs over each rolling mass ! 
And the path of the gentle winds is seen [lean. 
Where the small waves dance, and the young woods 

"And see, where the brighter daybeams pour, 
How the rainbows hang in the sunny shower; 
And the morn and eve, with their pomp of hues, 
Shift o'er the bright planets, and shed their dews; 
And, 'twixt them both, o'er the teeming ground, 
With her shadowy cone, the night goes round. 

"Away, away! — in our blossoming bowers, 
In the soft air wrapping these spheres of ours, 
In the seas and fountains that shine with morn, 
See, love is brooding, and life is born, 
And breathing myriads are breaking from night, 
To rejoice, like us, in motion and light. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 115 

" Glide on in your beauty, ye youthful spheres, 
To weave the dance that measures the years : 
Glide on in the glory and gladness sent 
To the farthest Avail of the firmament — 
The boundless visible smile of Him, 
To the vail of whose brow your lamps are dim/' 

Bryant. 
RULE II. 

When a noun or pronoun is addressed, it 
is in the nominative case independent; as, 
Julius, where have you been? Thou guar- 
dian of my youth, forsake me not. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
HYMN TO THE DEITY ON THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR. 

These, as they change, Almighty Father, these 
Are but the varied God. The rolling year 
Is full of thee. Forth in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. 
Wide flush the fields — the softening air is balm — 
Echo the mountains round — the forests smile ; 
And every sense and every heart is joy. 
Then comes thy glory in the summer months, 
With light and heat refulgent. Then thy sun 
Shoots full perfection through the swelling year ; 
And oft thy voice in dreadful thunder speaks; 
And oft, at dawn, deep noon, or falling eve, 
By brooks, arid groves, and hollow whispering gales, 
Thy bounty shines in autumn unconfined. 
And spreads a common feast for all that live. 
In winter, awful thou ! with clouds and storms 
Around thee thrown — tempest o'er tempest rolled : 
Majestic darkness ! on the whirlwind's wing 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Riding sublime, thou bidst the world adore, 
And humblest nature with thy northern blast. 

Mysterious round ! what skill, what force divine, 
Deep felt, in these appear ! a simple train — 
Yet so delightful mixed, with such kind art, 
Such beauty and beneficence combined — 
Shade, unperceived, so softening into shade — 
And all so forming a harmonious whole — 
That, as they still succeed, they ravish still. 
But, wand'ring oft with brute unconscious gaze, 
Man marks not thee, marks not the mighty hand, 
That, ever busy, wheels the silent spheres — 
Works in the secret deep — shoots, streaming, thence 
The fair profusion that o'erspreads the spring — 
Flings from the sun direct the flaming day : 
Feeds every creature — hurls the tempest forth : 
And, as on earth this grateful change revolves, 
With transport touches all the springs of life. 

Nature, attend ! join every living soul^ 
Beneath the spacious temple of the sky, 
In adoration join — and, ardent, raise 
One general song ! To him, ye vocal gales, 
Breathe soft, whose spirit in your freshness breathes. 
talk of him in solitary glooms ! 
Where, o'er the rock, the scarcely waving pine 
Fills the brown shade with a religious awe. 
And ye, whose bolder note is heard afar, 
Who shake th' astonished world, lift high to heaven 
Th' impetuous song, and say from whom you rage. 
His praise, ye brooks, attune, ye trembling rills — 
And let me catch it as I muse along. 
Ye headlong torrents, rapid and profound — 
Ye softer floods, that lead the humid maze 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 117 

Along the vale — and thou, majestic main, 

A secret world of wonders in thyself — 

Sound his stupendous praise, whose greater voice 

Or bids you roar, or bids your roarings fall. x 

Soft roll your incense, herbs, and fruits, and flowers, 

In mingled clouds to him, whose sun exalts, 

Whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints. 

Ye forests bend, ye harvests wave to him : 

Breathe your still song into the reaper's heart, 

As home he goes beneath the joyous moon. 

Ye that keep watch in heaven, as earth asleep 

Unconscious lies, effuse your mildest beams, 

Ye constellations, while your angels strike, 

Amid the spangled sky, the silver lyre. 

Great source of day ! best image here below 

Of thy Creator, ever pouring w T ide, 

From world to world, the vital ocean round, 

On nature wTite with every beam his praise. 

Ye thunders roll ; be hushed the prostrate world, 

While cloud to cloud returns the solemn hymn. 

Bleat out afresh, ye hills : ye mossy rocks, 

Retain the sound: the broad responsive low, 

Ye valleys, raise ; for the great Shepherd reigns, 

And his unsuffering kingdom yet will come. 

Ye woodlands all awake : a boundless song 

Burst from the groves : and when the restless day, 

Expiring, lays the warbling world asleep, 

Sweetest of birds ! sweet Philomela, charm 

The listening shades, and teach the night his praise. 

Ye chief, for whom the whole creation smiles ; 

At once the head, the heart, the tongue of all : 

Crown the great hymn ! In swarming cities vast, 

Assembled men, to the deep organ join 

The long resounding voice, oft breaking clear, 

At solemn pauses, through the swelling basej 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And as each mingling flame increases each, 
In one united ardor rise to heaven. 
Or if you rather choose the rural shade, 
And find a fane in every sacred grove — 
There let the shepherd's flute, the virgin's lay, 
The prompting seraph, and the poet's lyre, 
Still sing the God of Seasons as they roll. 
For me, when I forget the darling theme, 
Whether the blossom blows, the summer ray 
Russets the plain, inspiring autumn gleams; 
Or winter rises in the blackening east; 
Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more, 
And dead to joy, forget my heart to beat ! 

Should fate command me to the farthest verge 
Of the green earth, to distant barb'rous climes, 
Rivers unknown to song: where first the sun 
Gilds Indian mountains, or his setting beam 
Flames on the Atlantic isles ; J t is naught to me ; 
Since God is ever present, ever felt, 
In the void waste as in the city full ; 
And where he vital spreads, there must be joy. 
When even at last the solemn hour shall come, 
And wing my mystic flight to future worlds, 
I cheerful will obey; there, with new powers, 
Will rising wonders sing — I can not go 
Where Universal Love smiles not around. 
Sustaining all yon orbs, and all their suns; 
From seeming evil still adducing good, 
And better thence again, and better still, 

In infinite progression but I lose 

Myself in Him, in Light Ineffable ! 

Come then, expressive Silence, muse his praise. 

Thomson. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 119 

RULE III. 

When a noun or pronoun precedes a par- 
ticiple, and its case depends on no other word 
in the sentence, it is in the nominative case 
absolute ; as, My father being absent, the 
business was postponed; Juliet having fin- 
ished her studies at the seminary, we accom- 
panied her home. 

FALSE SYNTAX 

Me being unfortunate, he at last consented. 
Him having presented a specimen of his writing, 
we examined it. Her having finished her lesson, 
I dismissed the class. Them having ariived, we 
proceeded on our journey. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude 
being in that place. 

THE SUNBEAM. 

Thou art no lingerer in monarch's hall, 
A joy thou art, and a wealth to all ! 
A bearer of hope unto land and sea — 
Sunbeam ! what gift hath the world like thee ? 

Thou art walking the billows, and ocean smiles — 
Thou hast touched with glory his thousand isles ; 
Thou hast lit up the ships, and the feathery foam,. 
And gladdened the sailor, like words from home. 

To the solemn depths of the forest shades, 
Thou art streaming on thro' their green arcades, 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And the quivering leaves that have caught thy glow, 
Like fire-flies glance to the pools below. 

I looked on the mountains — a vapor lay, 
Folding their hights in its dark array : 
Thou breakest forth— and the mist became 
A crown and a mantle of living flame. 

I looked on the peasant's lowly cot — 
Something of sadness had wrapt the spot — 
But a gleam of thee on its lattice fell, 
And it laughed into beauty at that bright spell. 

To the earth's wild places a guest thou art, 
Flushing the waste like the rose's heart ; 
And thou scornest not from thy pomp to shed 
A tender smile on the ruin's head. 

Thou tak'st through the dim church-aisle thy way, 
And its pillars from twilight flash forth to day, 
And its high pale tombs, with their trophies old, 
Are bathed in a flood as of molten gold. 

And thou turnest not from the humblest grave, 
Where a flower to the sighing winds may wave ; 
Thou scatterest its gloom like the dreams of rest, 
Thou sleepest in love on its grassy breast. 

Sunbeam of summer ! oh ! what is like thee ? 
Hope of the wilderness, joy of the sea ! 
One thing is like thee to all mortals given, 
The faith touching all things with hues of Heaven ! 

Hemans. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 121 

RULE IV. 

The possessive case is governed by the 
noun possessed ; as, Melville's book ; Alb&n's 
apple. 

FALSE SYNTAX 
Ossians poems. Fingals sword. Alona, her book. 

TO THE EAGLE. 

Bird of the broad and sweeping wing ! 
Thy home is high in heaven, 
Where wide the storms their banners fling, 
And the tempest clouds are driven. 
Thy throne is on the mountain top ; 
Thy fields — the boundless air ; 
And hoary peaks, that proudly prop 
The skies — thy dwellings are. 

Thou sittest, like a thing of light, 

Amid the noontide blaze : 

The midway sun is clear and bright — : 

It can not dim thy gaze. 

Thy pinions, to the rushing blast 

O'er the bursting billow spread, 

Where the vessel plunges, hurry past, 

Like an angel of the dead. 

Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag, 
And the waves are white below ; 
And on, with a haste that can not lag, 
They rush in an endless flow. 
Again, thou hast plumed thy wing for flight 
To lands beyond the sea, 
And away, like a spirit wreathed in light, 
Thou hurriest wild and free. 
11 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thou hurriest o'er the myriad waves, 

And thou leavest them all behind ; 

Thou sweepest the place of unknown graves, 

Fleet as the tempest wind. 

When the night storms gather dim and dark, 

With a shrill and boding scream, 

Thou rushest by the foundering bark, 

Quick as a passing dream. 

Lord of the boundless realm of air ! 

In thy imperial name, 

The hearts of the bold and ardent dare 

The dangerous path of fame. 

Beneath the shade of thy golden wings, 

The Roman legions bore, 

From the river of Egypt's cloudy springs, 

Their pride, to the polar shore. 

For thee they fought, for thee they fell, 

And their oath was on thee laid ; 

To thee the clarions raised their swell, 

And the dying warrior prayed. 

Thou wert, through an age of death and fears, 

The image of pride and power, 

Till the gathered rage of a thousand years 

Burst forth in one awful hour. 

And then, a deluge of wrath it came, 

And the nations shook with dread ; 

And it swept the earth till its fields were flame, 

And piled with the mingled dead. 

Kings were rolled in the wasteful flood, 

With the low and crouching slave ; 

And together lay in a shroud of blood, 

The coward and the brave. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 123 

And where was then thy fearless flight ? 

" O'er the dark mysterious sea, 

To the lands that caught the setting light, 

The cradle of liberty. » 

There, on the silent and lonely shore, 

For ages, I watched alone, 

And the world, in its darkness, asked no more 

Where the glorious bird had flown. 

" But then came a bold and hardy few, 
And they breasted the unknown wave ; 
I caught afar the wandering crew ; 
And I knew they were high and brave. 
I wheeled around the welcome bark, 
As it sought the desolate shore ; 
And up to heaven, like a joyous lark, 
My quivering pinions bore. 

" And now that bold and hardy few 

Are a nation wide and strong, 

And danger and doubt I have led them through, 

And they worship me in song ; 

And over their bright and glancing arms 

On field, and lake, and sea, 

With an eye that fires, and a spell that charms, 

I guide them to victory.' ' — Percival. 

RULE V. 

When nouns or pronouns are added to pre- 
ceding nouns or pronouns to explain them, 
they are by apposition in the same ease ; as, 
Murray, the Grammarian, died in 1826 ; I 
saw Campbell, the Poet; I met Joseph, him 
that resides near the White Hall. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I saw Jefferson, he that wrote the Declaration of 
Independence. Robert Pollok, him that wrote the 
Course of Time, was a sublime poet. Give the 
books to Scott and Morgan, they to whom you were 
introduced at the Hotel. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
THE CREATION REQUIRED TO PRAISE ITS AUTHOR. 

Begin, my soul, th' exalted lay ! 
Let each enraptured thought obey, 

And praise th' Almighty's name : 
Lo ! heaven and earth, and seas and skies, 
In one melodious concert rise, 

To swell th' inspiring theme. 

Ye fields of light, celestial plains, 
Where gay transporting beauty reigns, 

Ye scenes divinely fair ! 
Your Maker's wond'rous power proclaim, 
Tell how he formed your shining frame, 
And breathed the fluid air. 

Ye angels, catch the thrilling sound ! 
While all th' adoring thrones around, 

His boundless mercy sing : 
Let every listening saint above, 
Wake all the tuneful soul of love, 

And Touch the sweetest string. 

Join, ye loud spheres, the vocal choir ; 
Thou dazzling orb of liquid fire, 

The mighty chorus aid : 
Soon as gray evening gilds the plain, 
Thou, moon, protract the melting strain, 

And praise him in the shade. 



RULES OE SYNTAX, 125 

Thou heaven of heavens, his vast abode ; 
Ye clouds, proclaim your forming God, 

Who called yon worlds from night : 
"Ye shades dispel!" th' Eternal said; , 
At once th' involving darkness fled, 

And nature sprung to light. 

Whate'er a blooming world contains, 
That wings the air, that skims the plains, 

United praise bestow : 
Ye dragons, sounds his awful name 
To heaven aloud ; and roar acclaim, 

Ye swelling deeps below. 

Let every element rejoice ; 

Ye thunders burst with aw T ful voice, 

To him who bids you roll : 
His praise in softer notes declare, 
Each whispering breeze of yielding air, 

And breathe it to the soul. 

To him, ye graceful cedars, bow ; 
Ye towering mountains, bending low, 

Your great Creator own ; 
Tell, when affrighted nature shook, 
How Sinai kindled at his look, 

And trembled at his frown. 

Ye flocks that haunt the humble vale, 
Ye insects fluttering on the gale, 

In mutual concourse rise ; 
Crop the gay rose's vermeil bloom, 
And waft its spoils, a sweet perfume, 

In incense to the skies. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Wake all ye mountain tribes, and sing ; 
Ye plumy warblers of the spring, 

Harmonious anthems raise 
To him who shaped your finer mold, 
Who tipped your glittering wings with gold, 

And tuned your voice to praise. 

Let man, by nobler passions swayed, 
The feeling heart, the judging head, 

In heavenly praise employ ; 
Spread his tremendous name around, 
Till heaven's broad arch rings back the sound, 

The general burst of joy. 

Ye whom the charms of grandeur please, 
Nursed on the downy lap of ease, 

Fall prostrate at his throne ; 
Ye princes, rulers, all adore ; 
Praise him, ye kings, who makes your power 

An image of his own. 

Ye fair, by nature formed to move, 
praise the eternal source of love, 

With youth's enlivening fire : 
Let age take up the tuneful lay, 
Sigh his blessed name — then soar away, 

And ask an angel's lyre. — Ogilvie. 



RULE VI. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; 
as, The boy drives the horse; Robert loves 
Helen ; I respect him. 



KULES ON SYNTAX. 127 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He that continues in sin, God will punish. The 
Judge invited my friend and I to accompany him. 
We that were in the Hall, they entertained w v ith 
music. She that is benevolent and pious, God will 
reward. Who did you meet in the street ? Ye who 
were dead, hath he quickened. They who oppose 
the religion of the Bible, we should consider as the 
worst enemies of mankind. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
A SUMMER EVENING'S MEDITATION. 

'Tis past! the sultry tyrant of the south 

Has spent his short-lived rage. More grateful hours 

Move silent on. The skies no more repel 

The dazzled sight : but, with mild maiden beams 

Of tempered light, invite the cherished eye 

To wander o'er their sphere; where, hung aloft, 

Dian's bright crescent, like a silver bow 

New strung in heaven, lifts high its beamy horns, 

Impatient for the night, and seems to push 

Her brother down the sky. Fair Venus shines 

E'en in the eye of day ; with sweetest beam 

Propitious shines, and shakes a trembling flood 

Of softened radiance from her dewy locks. 

The shadows spread apace ; while meekened eve, 

Her cheek yet w T arm with blushes, slow retires 

Through the Hesperian gardens of the West, 

And shuts the gates of day. 'Tis now the hour 

When contemplation, from her sunless haunts, * 

The cool damp grotto, or the lonely depth 

Of unpierced woods, where, wrapt in silent shade, 

She mused away the gaudy hours of noon, 

And fed on thoughts unripened by the sun, 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Moves forward ; and, with radiant finger, points 

To yon blue concave, swelled by breath divine, 

Where, one by one, the living eyes of heaven 

Awake, quick kindling o'er the face of ether 

One boundless blaze ; ten thousand trembling nres, 

And dancing lusters, where the unsteady eye, 

Restless and dazzled, wanders, unconfined, 

O'er all this field of glories : spacious field, 

And worthy of the Master ! he whose hand, 

With hieroglyphics elder than the Nile, 

Inscribed the mystic tablet, hung on high 

To public gaze ; and said, Adore, man, 

The finger of thy God ! From what pure wells 

Of milky light, what soft overflowing urn, 

Are all these lamps so filled ? these friendly lamps, 

Forever streaming o'er the azure deep, 

To point our path, and light us to our home. 

How soft they slide along the lucid spheres ! 

And, silent as the foot of time, fulfill 

Their destined courses. Nature's self is hushed, 

And but a scattered leaf, which rustles through 

The thick-wove foliage, not a sound is heard 

To break the midnight air ; though the raised ear, 

Intensely listening, drinks in every breath. 

How deep the silence, yet how loud the praise ! 

But are they silent all ? or is there not 

A tongue in every star that talks with man, 

And wooes him to be wise ? nor wooes in vain : 

This dead of midnight is the noon of thought, 

And wisdom mounts her zenith with the stars. 

At this still hour the self-collected soul 

Turns inward, and beholds a stranger there 

Of high descent, and more than mortal rank : 

An embryo god ; a spark of fire divine, 

Which must burn on for ages, when the sun 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 129 

(Fair transitory creature of a day !) 

Has closed his golden eye ? and, wrapt in shades, 

Forgets his wonted journey through the east. 

Ye citadels of light, and seats of bliss ! 
Perhaps my future home, from whence the soul, 
Revolving periods past, may oft look back, 
With recollected tenderness, on all 
The various busy scenes she left below, 
Its deep-laid projects, and its strange events, 
As on some fond and doting tale that soothed 
Her infant hours. be it lawful now 
To tread the hallowed circle of your courts, 
And, with mute wonder and delighted awe, 
Approach your burning confines ! Seized in thought, 
On fancy's wild and roving wing I sail 
From the green borders of the peopled earth, 
And the pale moon, her duteous fair attendant ; 
From solitary Mars; from the vast orb 
Of Jupiter, whose huge gigantic bulk 
Dances in ether like the lightest leaf; 
To the dim verge, the suburbs of the system, 
Where cheerless Saturn, 'mid his watery moons, 
Girt with a lucid zone, in gloomy pomp, 
Sits like an exiled monarch. Fearless thence 
I launch into the trackless deeps of space, 
Where, burning round, ten thousand suns appear, 
Of elder beam ; which ask no leave to shine 
Of our terrestrial star, nor borrow light 
From the proud regent of our scanty day : 
Sons of the morning, first-born of creation, 
And only less than He who marks their track, 
And guides their fiery wheels. Here must I stop, 
Or is there aught beyond? What hand unseen 
Impels me onward, through the glowing orbs 
Of habitable nature, far remote, 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To the dread confines of eternal night, 
To solitudes of vast unpeopled space, 
The deserts of creation, wide and wild, 
Where embryo systems and unkindled suns 
Sleep in the womb of chaos ? Fancy droops, 
And thought, astonished, stops her bold career. 
But, oh, thou mighty Mind ! whose powerful word 
Said, thus let all things be, and thus they were, 
Where shall I seek thy presence ? how, unblamed, 

Invoke thy dread perfection ; 

Have the broad eyelids of the morn beheld thee ? 
Or does the beamy shoulder of Orion 
Support thy throne ? look with pity down 
On erring, guilty man ! not in thy names 
Of terror clad ; not with those thunders armed 
That conscious Sinai felt, when fear appalled 
The scattered tribes : thou hast a gentler voice, 
That whispers comfort to the swelling heart, 
Abashed, yet longing to behold her Maker. 

But now, my soul, unused to stretch her powers 
In flight so daring, drops her weary wing, 
And seeks again the known accustomed spot, 
Drest up with sun, and shade, and lawns, and streams ; 
A mansion fair and spacious for its guest, 
And full replete with wonders. Let me here, 
Content and grateful, wait the appointed time, 
And ripen for the skies : the hour will come, 
When all these splendors, bursting on my sight, 
Shall stand unvailed, and to my ravished sense 
Unlock the glories of the world unknown. 

Barbauld. 

RULE VII. 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 
He went with me ; Give the pen to the lady ; 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 131 

Benjamin works for wages; The bird sings 
on the bough. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Every man ought to have respect for hisself. 
They intend to share it among theirselves. Who 
did George walk with? Who did he give the 
present to ? 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

on Jordan's banks. 

On Jordan's banks the Arab's camels stray. 

On Sion's hill the False One's votaries pray, 

The Baal-adorer bows on Sinai's steep — 

Yet there — even there — God ! thy thunders sleep : 

There — where thy finger scorched the tablet stone ! 
There — where thy shadow to thy people shone ! 
Thy glory shrouded in its garb of fire : 
Thyself — none living see and not expire ! 

Oh ! in the lightning let thy glance appear ; 
Sweep from his shivered hand the oppressor's spear! 
How long by tyrants shall thy land be trod ! 
How long thy temple worshipless, God ! — Byron. 

RULE VIII. 

The objective case is often governed by a 
preposition understood ; as, He gave me the 
pencil ; I gave the child an apple. 

ANALYTICAL EXEECISES. 

FROM JOB. 

A spirit passed before me : I beheld 
The face of immortality unvailed — 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Deep sleep came down on every eye save mine — 
And there it stood — all formless — but divine : 
Along my bones the creeping flesh did quake ; 
And, as my damp hair stiffened, thus it spake : 

" Is man more just than God ? Is man more pure 
Than he who deems e'en Seraphs insecure ? 
Creatures of clay — vain dwellers in the dust ! 
The moth survives you, and are ye more just ? 
Things of a day ! you wither ere the night, 
Heedless and blind to Wisdom's w r asted light !" 

Byron. 
RULE IX. 

A noun or a pronoun following like or un- 
like, is governed by the preposition to or unto 
understood j as, Edward is like his brother. 

ANALYTICAL EXEKCISES. 

Wouldst thou the Eternal with thy line explore ? 
Fathom Almighty Thought, and find its shore ? 
Go, meet Heaven's hight, the depth of Hades sound, 
Span the wide Earth, and reach o'er Ocean's bound! 

EULE X. 

Home and nouns signifying time or dis- 
tance^ are generally governed by a prepo- 
sition understood; as, He went home; He 
read two hours ; He rode five miles. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

When milder stars the gentle season bring, 
Canst thou withhold the beauties of the spring ? 
Or when Orion lifts his stormy sphere, 
Canst thou, with flowers, adorn the frost-bound year? 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 133 

By monthly stages, dost thou teach the sun, 
Through the vast orbits of the signs, to run ? 
Or lead Arcturus and his sons to roll, 
In shining ranks, around the northern pole ? , 

RULE XI. 
Nouns of extent, value, or duration, are 
often used without a governing word ; as, 
The territory is four hundred miles square ; 
The wall is twelve feet high, and four feet 
thick; The horse is worth ninety dollars; 
The man is forty years old. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Roll on, thou deep and dark-blue ocean — roll ! 

Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. 
Man marks the earth with ruin — his control 

Stops with the shore ; upon the watery plain 
The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain 

A shadow of man's ravage, save his own, 
When, for a moment, like a drop of rain, 

He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, 

Without a grave, unknelled, uncoffined, and un- 
known. 

Thou glorious mirror, where the Almighty's form 
Glasses itself in tempests; in all time, 

Calm or convulsed — in breeze, or gale, or storm, 
Icing the pole, or in the torrid clime 

Dark-heaving ; boundless, endless, and sublime — 
The image of eternity — the throne 

Of the Invisible ; even from out thy slime 

The monsters of the deep are made ; each zone 
Obeys thee ; thou goest forth, dread, fathomless, 
alone ! — Byron. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XII. 

When collective nouns convey the idea of 
unity, they must have verbs and pronouns 
agreeing with them in the singular number ; 
as. The class is large, and it is still increasing; 
The meeting lias finished its business. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The fleet are formidable. The class are indus- 
trious, and they learn rapidly. The nation are so 
weak, that they can not long maintain their inde- 
pendence. The meeting were respectable, and they 
passed several important resolutions. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
PROVIDENCE. 

Lo ! now the ways of heaven's eternal King 
To man are open ! 

Review them and adore ! Hear the loud voice 
Of Wisdom sounding in her works ! " Attend, 
Ye sons of men ! ye children of the dust, 
Be wise ! Lo ! I was present, when the Sire 
Of heaven pronounced his fiat; when his eye 
Glanced through the gulf of darkness, and his hand 
Fashioned the rising universe : I saw, 
O'er the fair lawns, the heaving mountains raise 
Their pine-clad spires ; and down the shaggy cliff 
I gave the rill to murmur. The rough mounds 
That bound the mad'ning deep ; the storm that 
Along the desert : the volcano fraught [roars 

With burning brimstone ; I prescribe their ends. 
I rule the rushing winds, and, on their wings, 
Triumphant walk the tempest. To my call 



RULES OF SYNTAX, 135 

Obsequious bellows the red bolt, that tears 

The cloud's thin mantle, when the gushing shower, 

Descending copious, bids the desert bloom. 

"I gave to man's dark search superior light, 
And cleared dim reason's misty view, to mark 
His powers, as through revolving ages tried, 
They rose not to his Maker. Thus prepared 
To know how distant from his narrow ken 
The truths by heaven revealed, my hand displayed 
The plan fair op'ning, where each nobler view, 
That swells th' expanding heart; each glorious hope, 
That points ambition to its goal ; each aim, 
That stirs, exalts, and animates desire; 
Pours on the mind's rapt sight a noontide ray. 

" Nor less in life employed, 'tis mine to raise 
The desolate of heart ; to bend the brow 
Of stubborn pride ; to bid reluctant ire 
Subside ; to tame rude nature to the rein 
Of Virtue. What though, screened from mortal view, 
I walk the deep'ning gloom ? What though my ways, 
Remote from thought's bewildered search, are wrapt 
In triple darkness ? Yet I work the springs 
Of life, and to the gen'ral good direct 
Th' obsequious means to move. ye, who tossed 
On life's tumultuous ocean, eye the shore, 
Yet far removed ; and wish the happy hour, 
When slumber on her downy couch shall lull 
Your cares to sweet repose ; yet bear awhile, 
And I will guide you to the balmy climes 
Of rest ; will lay you by the silver stream 
Crowned w T ith elysian bowers, w r here peace extends 
Her blooming olive, and the tempest pours 
Its killing blast no more." Thus Wisdom speaks 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To man; thus calls him through the external form 
Of nature, through Religion's fuller noon, 
Through life's bewild'ring mazes ; to observe 
A Providence in all. — Ogilvie. 

RULE XIII. 

When collective nouns convey the idea of 

plurality, they must have verbs and pronouns 

agreeing with them in the plural; as, The 

council were divided in their sentiments; My 

people do not consider : they have not known 

me. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The multitude is vain and thoughtless : it pur- 
sues pleasure as its chief good. My people doth 
not consider : it hath not known me. The nobility 
has too much influence. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
THE HARP THE MONARCH MINSTREL SWEPT. 

The harp the monarch minstrel swept, 
The King of men, the loved of Heaven, 

Which Music hallowed while she wept 
O'er tones her heart of hearts had given, 
Redoubled be her tears, its cords are riven ! 

It softened men of iron mold, 

It gave them virtues not their own ; 

No ear so dull, no soul so cold, 

That felt not, fired not to the tone, 

Till David's lyre grew mightier than his throne. 

It told the triumphs of our King, 

It wafted glory to our God; 
It made our gladdened valleys ring, 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 137 

The cedars bow, the mountains nod; 
Its sound aspired to heaven and there abode ! 
Since then, though heard on earth no more, 

Devotion and her daughter Love \ 

Still bid the bursting spirit soar 

To sounds that seem as from above, 
In dreams that day's broad light can not remove. 

Byron. 
RULE XIV. 

When two or more singular nominatives 
are taken disjunctively, they must have verbs 
agreeing with them in the singular number ; 
as, Neither William nor Andrew intends to 
remain in Cincinnati ; Either Martin or his 
brother has written this letter. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Neither Jane nor Elizabeth have visited me. 
Either Thomas or Calvin have done this. Igno- 
rance or negligence have caused this mistake. 
Neither of them are present. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
THE CREATION OF THE WORLD. 

* * * * * Meanwhile the Son 
On his great expedition now appeared, 
Girt with omnipotence, with radiance crowned 
Of majesty divine ; sapience and love 
Immense, and all his Father in him shone. 
About his chariot numberless were poured 
Cherub and seraph, potentates and thrones, 
And virtues ; winged spirits and chariots winged 
From the armory of God; where stand of old 
12 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Myriads, between two brazen mountains lodged 
Against a solemn day, harnessed at hand. 
Celestial equipage ! and now came forth 
Spontaneous, for within them spirit lived, 
Attendant on their Lord ; heaven opened wide 
Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound ! 
On golden hinges moving, to let forth 
The King of Glory, in his powerful Word 
And Spirit coming to create new worlds. 
On heavenly ground they stood, and from the shore 
They viewed the vast immeasurable abyss, 
Outrageous as a sea : dark, wasteful, wild ; 
Up from the bottom turned by furious winds, 
And surging waves, as mountains to assault 
Heaven's hight, and with the center mix the pole. 

Silence, ye troubled waves ! and thou deep, peace ! 
Said then the omnific Word, your discord end : 
Nor stayed ; but on the wings of Cherubim 
Uplifted, in paternal glory rode 
Far into Chaos, and the world unborn ; 
For Chaos heard his voice ; him all his train 
Followed in bright procession, to behold 
Creation, and the wonders of his might. 
Then stayed the fervid wheels, and in his hand 
He took the golden compasses, prepared 
In God's eternal store, to circumscribe 
This universe, and all created things. 
One foot he centered, and the other turned 
Round through the vast profundity obscure, 
And said, thus far extend, thus far thy bounds, 
This be thy just circumference, world ! 

Thus God the heaven created, thus the earth, 
Matter unformed and void ! Darkness profound 
Covered the abyss ; but on the watery calm 
His brooding wings the Spirit of God outspread, 



RULES ON SYNTAX. 139 

And vital virtue infused, and vital warmth 
Throughout the fluid mass ; but downward purged 
The black, tartareous, cold, infernal dregs, 
Adverse to life ; then founded, then conglobed \ 
Like things to like, the rest to several place 
Disparted ; and between, spun out the air ; 
And earth, self-balanced, on her center hung. 

Milton. 

RULE XV. 

Two or more nominatives taken in con- 
nection, must have verbs agreeing with them 
in the plural ; as, Edmund and Samuel are 
in the house ; Regina and Isabella have fin- 
ished their studies \ Clay and Webster were 
popular statesmen. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Rain and snow falls from the clouds. London 
and Paris is large cities. The lady and her sister 
has arrived. Margaret, Laura, and Clementine has 
gone to Washington. Daura and Evangeline loves 
play. Childhood and youth passes away like a 
dream. Disgrace, poverty, and ruin awaits the ine- 
briate. Death, Judgment, and Eternity is realities. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
WHEN COLDNESS WRAPS THIS SUFFERING CLAY. 

When coldness wraps this suffering clay, 
Ah! whither strays the immortal mind? 

It can not die, it can not stay, 

But leaves its darkened dust behind. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Then, unembodied, doth it trace 

By steps each planet's heavenly way ? 

Or fill at once the realms of space, 
A thing of eyes, that all survey ? 

Eternal, boundless, undecayed, 

A thought unseen, but seeing all, 
All, all, in earth, or skies displayed, 

Shall it survey, shall it recall : 
Each fainter trace that memory holds 

So darkly of departed years, 
In one broad glance the soul beholds, 

And all, that was, at once appears. 

Before Creation peopled earth, 

Its eye shall roll through chaos back ; 
And where the furthest heaven had birth 

The spirit trace its rising track. 
And where the future mars or makes, 

Its glance dilate o'er all to be, 
While sun is quenched or system breaks, 

Fixed in its own eternity. 

Above or Love, Hope, Hate, or Fear, 

It lives all passionless and pure : 
An age shall fleet like earthly year ; 

Its years as moments shall endure. 
Away, away, without a wing, 

O'er all, through all, its thought shall fly ; 
A nameless and eternal thing, 

Forgetting what it was to die. — Byron. 

RULE XVI. 

Personal pronouns must agree with the 
ouns which they represent, in gender, per- 



EULES OF SYNTAX. 141 

son, and number ; as, Herodotus was an 
ancient Greek historian ; he is called the 
Father of History; Hypatia was a learned 
lady of antiquity ; she governed the Platdnic 
school at Alexandria ; The rose is beautiful, 
but it soon fades. 

FALSE SYNTAX 

Every man received their wages. One should 
not have too high an opinion of themselves. No 
person should consider their education complete, 
till they have studied the grammatical construction 
of their own language. If a person has any regard 
for their reputation, they ought to shun profane and 
dissolute company. 

ANALYTICAL EXEKCISES. 
THE LAST DAY. 

At the destined hour, 
By the loud trumpet summoned to the charge, . 
See, all the formidable sons of fire, 
Eruptions, earthquakes, comets, lightnings, play 
Their various engines ; all at once disgorge 
Their blazing magazines : and take by storm 
This poor terrestrial citadel of man. 
Amazing period ! when each mountain-hight 
Outburns Vesuvius ; rocks eternal pour 
Their melted mass, as rivers once they poured ; 
Stars rush ; and final ruin fiercely drives 
Her plowshare o'er creation ! while aloft, 
More than astonishment ! if more can be ! 
Far other firmament than e'er was seen, 
Than e'er was thought by man ! far other stars ! 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Stars animate, that govern these of fire ; 

Far other sun ! A sun, how unlike 

The babe at Bethlehem ! How unlike the man 

That groaned on Calvary ! Yet he it is ; 

That man of sorrows ! how T changed ! what pomp ! 

In grandeur terrible, all heaven descends : 

A swift archangel, with his golden wing, 

As blots and clouds, that darken and disgrace 

The scene divine, sweeps stars and suns aside. 

And now, all dross removed, heaven's own pure day, 

Full on the confines of our ether, flames ; 

While (dreadful contrast !) far, how far beneath ! 

Hell, bursting, belches forth her blazing seas, 

And storms sulphureous ; her voracious jaws 

Expanding wide, and roaring for her prey. 

At midnight, when mankind is wrapt in peace, 
And worldly fancy feeds on golden dreams, 
Man, starting from his couch, shall sleep no more ! 
The day is broke, which never more shall close ! 
Above, around, beneath, amazement all ! 
Terror and glory joined in their extremes ! 
Our God in grandeur, and our world on fire ! 
All nature struggling in the pangs of death ! 
Dost thou not hear ? dost thou not deplore 
Her strong convulsions, and her final groan ? 
Where are we now ? Ah me ! the ground is gone 
On which we stood ! Lorenzo ! while thou mayst, 
Provide more firm support, or sink forever ! 
Where ? how ? from whence ? vain hope ! it is too late ! 
Where, where, for shelter, shall the guilty fly, 
When consternation turns the good man pale ? 

Great day ! for which all other days w r ere made ; 
For which earth rose from chaos ; man from earth ; 
And an eternity, the date of gods, 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 143 

Descended on poor earth-created man ! 

Great day of dread, decision, and despair ! 

At thought of thee, each sublunary wish 

Lets go its eager grasp, and drops the world ; , 

And catches at each reed of hope in heaven. 

Already is begun the grand assize, 

In us, in all ; deputed conscience scales 

The dread tribunal, and forestalls our doom ; 

Forestalls ; and, by forestalling, proves it sure. 

Why on himself should man void judgment pass : 

Is idle nature laughing at her sons ? 

Who conscience sent, her sentence will support, 

And God above assert that God in man. 

Thrice happy they, that enter now the court 

Heaven opens in their bosoms ; but how rare ! 

Ah me ! that magnanimity, how rare ! 

What hero, like the man who stands himself? 

Who dares to meet his naked heart alone ; 

Who hears intrepid the full charge it brings, 

Resolved to silence future murmurs there ? 

The coward flies ; and, flying, is undone. 

Shall man alone, whose fate, whose final fate, 

Hangs on that hour, exclude it from his thought? 

I think of nothing else ; I see ! I feel it ! 

All nature, like an earthquake, trembling round ! 

I see the Judge enthroned ! the flaming guard ! 

The volume opened ! opened every heart ! 

A sunbeam pointing out each secret thought ! 

No patron ! intercessor none ! now past 

The sweet, the clement, mediatorial hour ! 

For guilt no plea ! to pain, no pause ! no bound.! 

Inexorable, all ! and all extreme ! 

Nor man alone ; the foe of God and man, 

From his dark den, blaspheming, drags his chain, 

And rears his brazen front, with thunder scarred. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Like meteors in a stormy sky, how roll 

His baleful eyes ! he curses whom he dreads ; 

And deems it the first moment of his fall. — Young. 



RULE XVII. 

Eelative pronouns must agree with their 
antecedents, in gender, person, and number ; 
as, I who write ; Thou who writest ; He who 
writes ; They that write. 

FALSE SYNTAX 

Thou who has written this letter, knowest its 
contents. Thou, who was my guide in youth, wilt 
not forsake me now. Are you the man which built 
that house? There is the gentleman to which I 
sold the barouche. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
"ALL IS VANITY, SAITH THE PREACHER." 

Fame, wisdom, love, and power were mine, 

And health, and youth possessed me ; 
My goblets blushed from every vine, 

And lovely forms caressed me ; 
I sunned my heart in beauty's eyes, 

And felt my soul grow tender ; 
All earth can give, or mortal prize, 

Was mine of regal splendor. 

I strive to number o'er what days 

Remembrance can discover, 
Which all that life or earth displays 

Would lure me to live over. 



RULES OF SYNTAX, 145 

There rose no day, there rolled no hour 

Of pleasure unembittered : 
And not a trapping decked my power 

That galled not while it glittered. 

The serpent of the field, by art 

And spells, is won from harming ; 
But that which coils around the heart, 

Oh ! who hath power of charming ? 
It will not list to wisdom's lore, 

Nor music's voice can lure it ; 
But there it stings for evermore 

The soul that must endure it. — Byron. 



RULE XVIII. 

The relative is in the nominative case to 
the verb, when there is no intervening nom- 
inative ; as, The man who addressed us, spoke 
fluently. 

FALSE SYNTAX 

Whom will be appointed to superintend this 
work ? The Embassador whom was sent to Eng- 
land, has returned. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
OH! SNATCfiED AWAY IN BEAUTY'S BLOOM. 

Oh ! snatched away in beauty's bloom, 
On thee shall press no ponderous tomb; 
But on thy turf shall roses rear 
Their leaves, the earliest of the year ; 
And the wild cypress wave in tender gloom : 
13 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And oft by yon blue gushing stream 
Shall Sorrow lean her drooping head, 

And feed deep thought with many a dream, 
And, lingering, pause, and lightly tread; 

Fond wretch ! as if her step disturbed the dead. 

Away ! we know that tears are vain, 

That death nor heeds nor hears distress : 

Will this unteach us to complain ? 
Or make one mourner weep the less ? 

And thou — who tellest me to forget, 

Thy looks are wan, thine eyes are wet. — Byron. 

RULE XIX. 

When there is an intervening nominative, 
the relative is governed by the following verb, 
or by some other word in its own member of 
the sentence ; as, He whom I love will not 
forsake me ; The man to whom I gave the 
pen, is a stenographer. 



tr 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

The person who you introduced to me, I am in- 
formed is a Spaniard. Harold is a man who I 
highly respect. There is one of the gentlemen who 
I saw at the Crystal Palace. Who did you send 
the bouquet to ? Who did you purchase this watch 
for ? Those who we confide in, sometimes deceive 
us. Of those who much is given to, much will be 
required. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

milton's lamentation for the loss of his sight. 

Hail, holy light ! offspring of heaven first born ! 
Or of the Eternal, co-eternal beam ! 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 147 

May I express thee unblamed ! since God is light, 

And never, but in unapproached light 

Dwelt from eternity — dwelt then in thee, 

Bright effluence of bright essence increate. » 

Or hearest thou rather, pure ethereal stream, 

Whose fountain who shall tell ? Before the sun, 

Before the heavens thou wert, and at the voice 

Of God, as with a mantle didst invest 

The rising world of waters dark and deep, 

Won from the void and formless infinite. 

Thee I revisit now with bolder wing, 

Escaped the Stygian pool, though long detained 

In that obscure sojourn; while in my flight, 

Through utter, and through middle darkness borne, 

With other notes, than to the Orphean lyre, 

I sung of Chaos and Eternal night ; 

Taught by the heavenly muse to venture down 

The dark descent, and up to re-ascend, 

Though hard and rare. Thee I revisit safe, 

And feel thy sovereign vital lamp — but thou 

Revisitest not these eyes, that roll in vain 

To find thy piercing ray, and find no dawn ; 

So thick a drop serene hath quenched their orbs, 

Or dim suffusion vailed. Yet not the more 

Cease I to wander where the Muses haunt, 

Clear spring, or shady grove, or sunny hill, 

Smit with love of sacred song — but chief 

Thee, Zion, and the flowery brooks beneath, 

That wash thy hallowed feet, and warbling flow, 

Nightly I yisit — nor sometimes forget 

Those other two equaled with me in fate, 

So were I equaled with them in renown, 

Blind Thamyris, and blind Mseonides ; 

And Tiresias, and Phineus, prophets old : 

Then feed on thoughts, that voluntary move 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Harmonious numbers— -as the wakeful bird 
Sings darkling, and in shadiest covert hid, 
Tunes her nocturnal note. Thus, with the year, 
Seasons return — but not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine ; 
But cloud instead, and ever-during dark 
Surround me, from the cheerful ways of men 
Cut off, and, for the book of knowledge fair, 
Presented with a universal blank 
Of nature's works, to me expunged and razed, 
And wisdom, at one entrance quite shut out. 
So much the rather, thou, celestial light, 
Shine inward, and the mind, through all her powers, 
Irradiate ; there plant eyes ; all mist from thence, 
Purge and disperse ; that I may see and tell 
Of things invisible to mortal sight. 



RULE XX. 

A verb must agree with its nominative in 
person and number ; as, I see ; Thou seest ; 
He sees. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Wolves prowls in the forest. These books is 
very neatly bound. Those boys has just returned 
from school. The ship with all the passengers 
were lost. A variety of beautiful flowers decorate 
our Western prairies. Every member of the legis- 
lature were present, when the bill w^ere passed. 
Thou should endeavor to help thyself. Thou can 
do the work if thou will. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 149 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
PROVIDENCE VINDICATED IN PRESENT STATE OF MAN. 

Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 

All but the page prescribed, their present state : 

From brutes what men, from men what spirits know ; 

Or who could suffer being here below ? 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to day, 

Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? 

Pleased to the last, he crops the flowery food, 

And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood. 

blindness to the future ! kindly given, 

That each may fill the circle marked by Heaven ; 

Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 

A hero perish, or a sparrow fall ; 

Atoms or systems into ruin hurled, 

And now a bubble burst, and now a world. 

Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar ; 

Wait the great teacher Death ; and God adore. 

What future bliss he gives not thee to know, 

But gives that hope to be thy blessing now. 

Hope springs eternal in the human breast : 

Man never is, but always to be blest. 

The soul, uneasy, and confined from home, 

Rests and expatiates in a life to come. 

Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind 

Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind ; 

His soul proud science never taught to stray 

Far as the Solar Walk or Milky Way ; 

Yet simple nature to his hope has given, 

Behind the cloud-topt hill, an humbler heaven ; " 

Some safer world in depth of woods embraced, 

Some happier island in the watery waste ; 

Where slaves once more their native land behold, 

No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To be, contents his natural desire : 

He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire ; 

But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, 

His faithful dog shall bear him company. 

Go, wiser thou ! and in thy scale of sense, 

Weigh thy opinion against Providence ; 

Call imperfection what thou fanciest such ; 

Say here he gives too little, there too much. 

In pride, in reasoning pride, our error lies ; 

All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. 

Pride still is aiming at the blest abodes ; 

Men would be angels, angels would be gods. 

Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, 

Aspiring to be angels, men rebel : 

And who but wishes to invert the laws 

Of order, sins against the Eternal Cause. — Pope. 



RULE XXI. 

The verb to he, and its inflections, may have 
the same case after them as before them; as, 
/ am he ; Thou art the man ; Milton was a 
poet ; I took him to be Byron. 



FALSE SYNTAX. 

It is me, be not afraid. Thou art him whom 
angels adore. I suppose it was her that blotted 
my paper. Walter and Edgar are sprightly boys ; 
it was them that spoke so eloquently at the exhibi- 
tion. Thou art him w T hom all men should fear. I 
believe it to be he and no other. I took the lady 
to be she whom I saw at the concert. 



RULES* OF SYNTAX. 151 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
THE BIRDS OF PASSAGE. 

Birds, joyous birds of the wandering wing! 
Whence is it ye come with the flowers of spring ? 
" We come from the shores of the green old Nile, 
From the land where the roses of Sharon smile, 
From the palms that wave thro' the Indian sky, 
From the myrrh trees of glowing Araby. 

" We have swept o'er cities in song renowned — 

Silent they lie, with the deserts round ! 

We have crossed proud rivers whose tide hath rolled 

All dark with the warrior-blood of old ; 

And each worn wing hath regained its home, 

Under peasant's roof-tree, or monarch's 'dome." 

And what have ye found in the monarch's dome, 
Since last ye traversed the blue sea's foam ? 
" We have found a change, we have found a pall, 
And a gloom o'ershadowing the banquet's hall, 
And a mark on the floor as of life-drops spilt- 
Naught looks the same save the nest we built !" 

Oh ! joyous birds, it hath still been so ; 
Thro' the halls of kings doth the tempest go ! 
But the huts of the hamlet lie still and deep, 
And the hills o'er their quiet a vigil keep. 
Say what have ye found in the peasant's cot, 
Since last ye parted from that sweet spot ? 

"A change we have found there, and many a change ! 
Faces and footsteps and all things strange ! 
Gone are the heads of the silvery hair, 
And the young that were, have a brow of care, 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And the place is hushed where the children played— 
Naught looks the same save the nest we made I" 

Sad is your tale of the beautiful earth, 
Birds that o'ersweep it in power and mirth ! 
Yet thro' the wastes of the trackless air, 
Ye have a Guide, and shall we despair? 
Ye over desert and deep have passed — 
So may we reach our bright home at last ! 

Hemans. 

RULE XXII. 

Intransitive and passive verbs have the 
same case after them as before them, when 
both words relate to the same person or 
thing ; as, He roams a fugitive ; Stephen 
died a martyr ; Your gold shall become a 
curse; He was named Leonard. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

THE CREATOR'S WORKS ATTEST HIS GREATNESS. 

The spacious firmament on high, 
With all the blue ethereal sky, 
And spangled heavens, a shining frame, 
Their great original proclaim : 
Th' unwearied sun, from day to day, 
Does his Creator's power display, 
And publishes to ev'ry land 
The work of an Almighty hand. 
Soon as the evening shades prevail, 
The moon takes up the wond'rous tale, 
And, nightly, to the listening earth, 
Repeats the story of her birth; 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 153 

While all the stars that round her burn, 

And all the planets in their turn, 

Confirm the tidings as they roll, 

And spread the truth from pole to pole. 

What though, in solemn silence, all 

Move round the dark terrestrial ball ! 

What tho' nor real voice nor sound, 

Amid their radiant orbs be found ! 

In reason's ear they all rejoice, 

And utter forth a glorious voice, 

Forever singing as they shine, 

" The hand that made us is Divine." — Addison. 

RULE XXIII. 

A verb in the infinitive mood * may be 
governed by a verb, noun, adjective, par- 
ticiple, or pronoun; as, The boy intends to 
go to Trenton; I taught the lady to write / 
He is able to worh ; Novella having learned 
to read, commenced the study of geography ; 
He invited me to accompany him. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
THE VANITY OF WEALTH, 

No more thus brooding o'er yon heap, 
With av'rice painful vigils keep ; 
Still unenjoyed the present store, 
Still endless sighs are breathed for more. 
Oh ! quit the shadow, catch the prize, 
Which not all India's treasure buys! 
To purchase heaven has gold the power? 
Can gold remove the mortal hour? 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In life, can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold? 
No — all that 's worth a wish — a thought, 
Fair virtue gives unbribed, unbought. 
Cease then on trash thy hopes to bind; 
Let nobler views engage thy mind. 

Dr. Johnson. 

RULE XXIV. 

The verbs which follow hid, dare, need, 
make, see, hear, feel, help, let, and their par- 
ticiples, are in the infinitive mood, without 
the sign to expressed ; as, He bids me stay ; 
I dare meet you ; You need not trouble your- 
self; The teacher made the boy read; I saw 
him fall; I heard him speak; I felt the house 
shake; I will help him do the work; Let the 
child have the toy ; While hearing his class 
recite, he was interrupted. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Bid him to go. You need not to do it. He made 
him to stay. Did you see him to cross the bridge? 
I heard him to speak. I felt the floor to shake. 
John, help him to carry the box. Let him to go 
home. While hearing his class to recite, he was 
interrupted. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Let coward guilt, with pallid fear, 

To sheltering caverns fly, 
And justly dread the vengeful fate 

That thunders through the sky. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 155 

Protected by that hand, whose law 
The threatening storms obey, 

Intrepid virtue smiles secure, 
As in the blaze of day. 

RULE XXV. 

The infinitive mood, or a part of a sen- 
tence, may be the nominative to a verb, or 
the object of a transitive verb; as, To quarrel 
is disgraceful; That man should revere the 
great Author of his being, is rational and self- 
evident. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

Restless mortals toil for naught 9 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought; 
Bliss, a native of the sky, 
Never wanders. Mortals, try; 
There you can not seek in vain; 
For to seek her is to gain. 

RULE XXVI. 

Adjectives belong to nouns expressed or 
understood; as, Solomon was a wise king; 
Nero was a barbarous tyrant. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

SONNET OF CHILLON. 

Eternal Spirit of the chainless Mind ! 

Brightest in dungeons, Liberty ! thou art, 
For there thy habitation is the heart— 

The heart which love of thee alone can bind ! 

And when thy sons to fetters are consigned — 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To fetters, and the damp vault's dayless gloom, 
Their country conquers with their martyrdom, 
And Freedom's fame finds wings on every wind. 

Chillon ! thy prison is a holy place, 

And thy sad floor an altar— for 't was trod, 

Until his very steps have left a trace 

Worn, as if thy cold pavement were a sod, 

By Bonnivard ! May none those marks efface ! 
For they appeal from tyranny to God. — Byron. 

RULE XXVII. 

Adjectives denoting unity, belong to nouns 
in the singular number only; as, A man, 
this man, that man, each man, every man, one 
man, another man. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
THOUGHTS SUGGESTED BY A COLLEGE EXAMINATION. 

Happy the youth in Euclid's axioms tried, 
Though little versed in any art beside ; 
Who, scarcely skilled an English line to pen, 
Scans Attic meters with a critic's ken. 
What though he knows not how his fathers bled, 
When civil discord piled the fields with dead, 
When Edward bade his conquering bands advance, 
Or Henry trampled on the crest of France ; 
Though marveling at the name of Magna Charta, 
Yet well he recollects the laws of Sparta; 
Can tell what edicts sage Lycurgus made, 
While Blackstone 's on the shelf neglected laid ; 
Of Grecian dramas vaunts the deathless fame, 
Of Avon's bard remembering scarce the name. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 157 

Such is the youth whose scientific pate 
Class-honors, medals, fellowships, await ; 
Or even, perhaps, the declamation prize, 
If to such glorious hight he lifts his eyes. 
But lo ! no common orator can hope 
The envied silver cup within his scope. 
Not that our heads much eloquence require, 
Th' Athenian's glowing style, or Tully's fire. 
A manner clear or warm is useless, since 
We do not try by speaking to convince. 
Be other orators of pleasing proud : 
We speak to please ourselves, not move the crowd. 
Our gravity prefers the muttering tone, 
A proper mixture of the squeak and groan: 
No borrowed grace of action must be seen — 
The slightest motion would displease the Dean ; 
While every staring graduate would prate 
Against what he could never imitate. — Byron. 

RULE XXVIII. 

Adjectives implying plurality, belong to 
nouns in the plural number ; as, These boys, 
those boys, six men, ten fathoms, fifty feet. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He prefers those kind of apples. The sound is 
fifty fathom deep. The house is forty foot in 
length. Five bushel of wheat should weigh at 
least three hundred pound. That horse can travel 
seven mile in an hour. 

ANALYTICAL EXEKCISES. 
Bright be the place of thy soul ! 
No lovelier spirit than thine 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E'er burst from its mortal control, 
In the orbs of the blessed to shine. 

On earth thou wert all but divine, 
As thy soul shall immortally be ; 

And our sorrow may cease to repine, 
When we know that thy God is with thee. 

Light be the turf of thy tomb ! 

May its verdure like emeralds be : 
There should not be the shadow of gloom 

In aught that reminds us of thee. 
Young flowers and an evergreen tree 

May spring from the spot of thy rest; 
But nor cypress nor yew let us see ; 

For why should we mourn for the blest? 

Byron. 

RULE XXIX. 

Participles refer to nouns or pronouns ex- 
pressed or understood ; as, Seeing him from 
the window, i" hailed him ; I saw the hall 
thrown over the house ; Having finished my 
letter, / retired to rest. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES 

REFLECTIONS ON A FUTURE STATE, FROM A REVIEW 
OF WINTER. 

'T is done ! dread winter spreads his latest glooms, 

And reigns tremendous o'er the conquered year. 

How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 

How dumb the tuneful ! Horror wide extends 

His desolate domain. Behold, fond man ! 

See here thy pictured life : pass some few years, 

Thy flow'ring spring, thy summer's ardent strength, 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 159 

Thy sober autumn fading into age, 

And pale concluding winter comes at last, 

And shuts the scene. 

Ah! whither now are fled 
Those dreams of greatness ? those unsolid hopes 
Of happiness ? those longings after fame ? 
Those restless cares ? those busy bustling days ? 
Those gay-spent, festive nights? those veering 
Thoughts, lost between good and ill, that shared 
Thy life ? 

All now are vanished ! Virtue sole survives, 
Immortal, never-failing friend of man, 
His guide to happiness on high. And see ! 
'T is come, the glorious morn ! the second birth 
Of heaven and earth ! awak'ning nature hears 
The new-creating word ; and starts to life, 
In ev'ry hightened form, from pain and death 
Forever free. The great eternal scheme, 
Involving all, and in a perfect whole 
Uniting as the prospect wider spreads, 
To reason's eye refined clears up apace. 
Ye vainly wise ! Ye blind presumptuous ! now, 
Confounded in the dust, adore that Power 
And Wisdom oft arraigned : see now the cause 
Why unassuming worth in secret lived, 
And died neglected : why the good man's share 
In life was gall, and bitterness of soul : 
Why the lone widow and her orphans pined 
In starving solitude, while luxury, 
In palaces, lay straining her low thought, 
To form unreal wants : why heaven-born truth, 
And moderation fair, wore the red marks 
Of superstition's scourge : why licensed pain, 
That cruel spoiler, that embosomed foe, 
Imbittered all our bliss. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ye good distressed ! 
Ye noble few ! who here unbending stand 
Beneath life's pleasure, yet bear up awhile, 
And what your bounded view, which only saw 
A little part, deemed evil, is no more : 
The storms of wint'ry time will quickly pass, 
And one unbounded spring encircle all. — Thomson. 

RULE XXX. 

Participles retain the regimen of the verbs 
from which they are derived ; as, Knowing 
the man to be profane, I avoided him ; The 
speaker having finished his address, sat down. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
nature's evening hymn. 

The heavenly spheres to thee, God, 

Attune their evening hymn : 
All wise, all holy, thou art praised 

In song of seraphim ! 
Unnumbered systems, suns, and worlds 

Unite to worship thee, 
While thy majestic greatness fills 

Space, time, eternity ! 

Nature — a temple worthy thee, 

That beams with light and love ; 
Whose flowers so sweetly bloom below, 

Whose stars rejoice above, 
Whose altars are the mountain cliffs, 

That rise along the shore; 
Whose anthems, the sublime accord 

Of storm and ocean roar; 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 161 

Her song of gratitude is sung 

By spring's awakening hours ; 
Her summer offers at thy shrine 

Its earliest, loveliest flowers; 
Her autumn brings its ripened fruits, 

In glorious luxury given ; 
While winter's silver nights reflect 

Thy brightness back to heaven. 

On all thou smil'st; and what is man 

Before thy presence, God ? 
A breath but yesterday inspired, 

To-morrow but a clod. 
That clod shall mingle in the vale, 

But kindled, Lord, by thee ; 
The spirit to thy arms shall spring, 

To life, to liberty ! — Bowring. 

RULE XXXI. 

Present participles sometimes become 
nouns ; as, Upon hearing the arguments, 
they were convinced; By the reading of 
novels, the mind is often vitiated. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
UNHAPPY CLOSE OF LIFE. 

How shocking must thy summons be, Death ! 
To him that is at ease in his possessions ! 
Who counting on long years of pleasure here, - 
Is quite unfurnished for the world to come ! 
In that dread moment, how the frantic soul 
Raves round the walls of her clay tenement; 
Runs to each avenue, and shrieks for help ; 
14 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

But shrieks m vain ! How wishfully she looks 
On all she 's leaving, now no longer hers ! 

A little longer ; yet a little longer ; 

might she stay to wash away her stains, 
And fit her for her passage ! Mournful sight ! 
Her very eyes weep blood ; and ev'ry groan 
She heaves is big with horror. But the foe, 
Like a stanch murd'rer, steady to his purpose, 
Pursues her close, thro' ev'ry lane of life ; 
Nor misses once the track ; but presses on, 
Till, forced at last to the tremendous verge, 
At once she sinks to everlasting ruin. — Blair, 

RULE XXXII. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs; as, He read fluently ; 

1 saw the army marching slowly ; Voltaire 
was shockingly impious; The boy learns very 
fast. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
IMMORTALITY. 

0, listen, man ! 
A voice within us speaks that startling word, 
" Man, thou shalt never die V* Celestial voices 
Hymn it unto our souls : according harps, 
By angel fingers touched when the mild stars 
Of morning sang together, sound forth still 
The song of our great immortality : 
Thick clustering orbs, and this our fair domain, 
The tall, dark mountains, and the deep-toned seas, 
Join in this solemn, universal song. 
listen, ye, our spirits ; drink it in 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 163 

From all the air ! 'T is in the gentle moonlight ; 
? T is floating mid day's setting glories ; Night, 
Wrapped in her sable robe, with silent step 
Comes to our bed, and breathes it in our ears 8, 
Night, and the dawn, bright day, and thoughtful eve ? 
All time, all bounds, the limitless expanse, 
As one vast mystic instrument, are touched 
By an unseen, living hand, and conscious chords 
Quiver with joy in this great jubilee. 
The dying hear it ; and as sounds of earth 
Grow dull and distant, wake their passing souls 
To mingle in this heavenly harmony. — Dana. 

RULE XXXIII. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and' pronouns 
in the same case ; as, Socrates and Plato were 
philosophers. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Him and I studied Grammar. You and me have 
gone to the same school. Her and her sister are 
highly accomplished. I hope there will be no 
difficulty between you and I. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 

THAT PHILOSOPHY WHICH STOPS AT SECONDARY 
CAUSES REPROVED. 

Happy the man who sees a God employed 
In all the good and ill that checker life ! 
Resolving all events, with their effects 
And manifold results, into the will 
And arbitration wise of the Supreme. 
Did not his eye rule all things, and intend 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The least of our concerns ; (since from the least 
The greatest oft originate ;) could chance 
Find place in his dominions, or dispose 
One lawless particle to thwart his plan ; 
Then God might be surprised, and unforeseen 
Contingence might alarm him, and disturb 
The smooth and equal course of his affairs. 

This truth, philosophy, though eagle-eyed 

In nature's tendencies, oft overlooks ; 

And having found his instrument, forgets 

Or disregards, or, more presumptuous still, 

Denies the power that wields it. God proclaims 

His hot displeasure against foolish men 

That live an atheist life ; involves the heaven 

In tempests ; quits his grasp upon the winds, 

And gives them all their fury ; bids a plague 

Kindle a fiery boil upon the skin, 

And putrefy the breath of blooming health. 

He calls for famine, and the meager fiend 
Blows mildew from between his shriveled lips, 
And taints the golden ear; he springs his mines 
And desolates a nation at a blast: 
Forth steps the spruce philosopher, and tells 
Of homogeneal and discordant springs 
And principles ; of causes, how they work 
By necessary laws their sure effects, 
Of action and reaction. 

He has found 
The source of the disease that nature feels; 
And bids the world take heart and banish fear. 
Thou fool ! will thy discov'ry of the cause 
Suspend th' effect, or heal it? Has not God 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 165 

Still wrought by means since first he made the world ? 
And did he not of old employ his means 
To drown it? What is his creation less 
Than a capacious reservoir of means, 
Formed for his use, and ready at his will ? 
Go, dress thine eyes with eye-salve ; ask of him, 
Or ask of whomsoever he has taught, 
And learn, though late, the genuine cause of all. 

Cowper. 

RULE XXXIV. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods and 
tenses of verbs ; as, Dione reads and writes 
well. 

FALSE SYNTAX 

She can write a smooth hand, but spells badly, 
He has gone home, but will return to-morrow. He 
has done his duty, and should be rewarded. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
ON PRIDE. 

Of all the causes which conspire to blind 

Man's erring judgment, and misguide the mind, 

What the weak head with strongest bias rules, 

Is pride, the never-failing vice of fools. 

Whatever nature has in worth denied, 

She gives in large recruits of needful pride ! 

For, as in bodies, thus in souls we find 

What wants in blood and spirits, swelled with wind. 

Pride, where wit fails, steps in to our defense, 

And fills up all the mighty void of sense. 

If once right reason drives that cloud away, 

Truth breaks upon us with resistless day. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Trust not yourself; but, your defects to know, 
Make use of ev'ry friend — and ev'ry foe. 
4. little learning is a dangerous thing ; 
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring ; 
There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain ; 
And drinking largely sobers us again. 

Fired at first sight with what the muse imparts, 

In fearless youth we tempt the hights of arts, 

While, from the bounded level of our mind, 

Short views we take, nor see the lengths behind ; 

But more advanced, behold, with strange surprise, 

New distant scenes of endless science rise ! 

So, pleased at first, the tow'ring Alps we try, 

Mount o'er the vales, and seem to tread the sky ; 

Th' eternal snows appear already past, 

And the first clouds and mountains seem the last : 

But, those attained, we tremble to survey 

The growing labors of the lengthened way ; 

Th' increasing prospect tires our wandering eyes ; 

Hills peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps arise. — Pope. 

RULE XXXV. 

The case of a noun or pronoun following 
than y as, or but, often depends on a verb or 
preposition understood ; as, She reads better 
than her sister—* that is, she reads better 
than her sister reads. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
NOTHING FORMED IN VAIN. 

Let no presuming impious railer tax 
Creative wisdom ; as if aught was formed 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 167 

In vain, or not for admirable ends. 
Shall little haughty ignorance pronounce 
His works unwise, of which the smallest part 
Exceeds the narrow vision of her mind ? ' 

As if, upon a full-proportioned dome, 
On swelling columns heaved, the pride of art ! 
A critic-fly, whose feeble ray scarce spreads 
An inch around, with blind presumption bold, 
Should dare to tax the structure of the whole. 

And lives the man, whose universal eye 

Has swept at once th' unbounded scheme of things; 

Marked their dependence so, and firm accord 

As with unfalt'ring accent to conclude, 

That this availeth naught? Has any seen 

The mighty chain of beings, lessening down 

From infinite perfection, to the brink 

Of dreary nothing, desolate abyss ! 

From which astonished, thought, recoiling, turns ? 

Till then alone let zealous praise ascend, 

And hymns of holy wonder, to that power, 

Whose wisdom shines as lovely in our minds, 

As on our smiling eyes his servant sun. — Thomson. 

RULE XXXVI. 

Two negatives in the same sentence neu- 
tralize each other, and are improper, unless 
we wish to, affirm; thus, if I say I have not 
been doing noiliing, I affirm that I have 
been doing something. 

FALSE SYNTAX 

He don't do nothing at the proper time. Noth- 
ing never seems to move him. I do n't see no per- 



168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

son on the street. He do n't provide nothing for 
his family. We should never injure no person. I 
can not by no means accede to any such measure. 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
THE SPIRIT OF POETRY. 

There is a quiet spirit in these woods, 
That dwells where'er the gentle south wind blows — 
Where, underneath the white-thorn, in the glade, 
The wild flowers bloom, or, kissing the soft air, 
The leaves above their sunny palms outspread. 
With what a tender and impassioned voice 
It fills the nice and delicate ear of thought, 
When the fast-ushering star of morning comes 
O'erriding the gray hills with golden scarf; 
Or when the cowled and dusky-sandaled eve, 
In mourning weeds from out the western gate, 
Departs with silent pace ! That spirit moves 
In the green valley, where the silver brook, 
From its full laver, pours the white cascade, 
And, babbling low amid the tangled woods, 
Slips down through moss-grown stones with endless 
And frequent, on the everlasting hills, [laughter. 
Its feet go forth, when it doth wrap itself 
In all the dark embroidery of the storm, 
And shouts the stern strong wind. And here, amid 
The silent majesty of these deep woods, 
Its presence shall uplift thy thoughts from earth, 
As to the sunshine and the pure bright air 
Their tops the green trees lift. 

Hence gifted bards 
Have ever loved the calm and quiet shades. 
For them there was an eloquent voice in all 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 169 

The sylvan pomp of woods — the golden sun — 
The flowers — the leaves — the river on its way — 
Blue skies — and silver clouds— and gentle winds — 
The swelling upland, where the sidelong sun ; 
Aslant the wooded slope, at evening, goes — 
Groves, through whose broken roof the sky looks in — 
Mountain — and shattered cliff — and sunny vale — 
The distant lake — fountains- — and mighty trees — 
In many a lazy syllable repeating 
Their old poetic legends to the wind. 
And this is the sweet spirit that doth fill 
The world ; and, in these wayward days of youth, 
My busy fancy oft embodies it, 
As a bright image of the light and beauty 
That dwell in nature — of the heavenly forms 
We worship in our dreams, and the soft Hues 
That lie i' the wild bird's wing, and flush the clouds 
When the sun sets. Within her eye 
The heaven of April, with its changing light, 
And when it wears the blue of May, was hung, 
And on her lip the rich red rose. Her hair 
Was as the summer tresses of the trees, 
When twilight makes them brown, and on her cheek 
Blushed all the richness of an autumn sky, 
With its ever shifting beauty. Then her breath — 
It was so like the gentle air of spring, 
As, from the morning's dewy flowers, it comes 
Full of their fragrance, that it was a joy 
To have it round us — and her silver voice 
Was the rich music of a summer bird, 
Heard in the still night, with its passionate cadence. 

Longfellow. 
15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

MINOR RULES OF SYNTAX. 

EULE 1. 

Every nominative, when it is not inde- 
pendent, or in the case absolute, must have 
a verb to agree with it, either expressed or 

understood. 

RULE 2. 

A noun of the third person is often in the 

nominative case independent by exclamation ; 

as, Wretched man ! his doom is sealed. 

EULE 3. 

Nouns are sometimes independent by ple- 
onasm ; as, " The soul that sinneth, it shall 
die;" "Gael, a troop shall overcome him;" 
" Then her hreath — it was so like the gentle 
air of spring." 

EULE 4. 

Nouns and pronouns used in asking a ques- 
tion, and those employed in answering it, must 
agree in case ; as, Who discovered America ? 
Columbus. In this example, who and Colum- 
bus agree in case ; who is the subject of the 
verb discovered expressed, and Columbus is 
in the nominative case to discovered under- 
stood. 

EULE 5. 

The case of nouns used in mottoes, titles 
of books, and other abbreviated expressions, 
frequently depends on a verb or preposition 
understood. In the following example, the 



MINOR RULES OF SYNTAX. 171 

case of the nouns in italics must be deter- 
mined by supplying words : " A horse ! a 
horse ! my kingdom for a horse !" 

RULE 6. 

When a noun or a pronoun follows an in- 
terjection as part of an imperfect exclama- 
tion, its case usually depends on some thing 
understood ; as, Ah me ! — that is, pity me, 
or sympathize with me. 

RULE 7. 

Passive verbs are sometimes followed by 
an objective case; as, "Pitticus was offered a 
large sum by the king." This mode of ex- 
pression is evidently erroneous. In the ex- 
ample given for illustration, the noun Pitticus 
is not the true subject of the verb; Pitticus 
was not offered; the sum was offered to 
Pitticus* 

RULE 8. 

When a verb comes between two nomina- 
tives, it must agree with that which is more 
naturally its subject; as, " The wages of sin 
is death ;" " His meat was locusts and wild 
honey." 

RULE 9. 

When nouns in the possessive case are in 
apposition, and follow each other in quick 
succession, the possessive sign is generally 
annexed to the last only; as, "For David 
my servant's sake." But when a pause is 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

proper, and the governing noun not ex- 
pressed, the sign should be applied to the 
first possessive, and understood to the rest ; 
as, I reside at Wilson's, my old teacher and 

friend. 

EULE 10. 

The possessive case is sometimes governed 
by participles ; as, His coming was foretold 
by the prophets. 

EULE 11. 

Personal pronouns, in the possessive case, 
do not require the possessive sign ; hence its 
use in the following examples is improper: 
The knife is his 9 ; The fan is hers 1 ; These 
goods are theirs'. 

EULE 12. 

The common and the proper name of a 
thing are frequently put in apposition ; as, 
Cape Horn, Lake Superior, the river Nile. 

EULE 13. 

A phrase is sometimes put in apposition 
with a noun ; as, " Whoever, with know- 
ledge and impartiality, examines the question, 
whether the writings of the Old Testament are 
authentic, will undoubtedly be compelled to 
reply in the affirmative." 

EULE 14. 

When a noun or a pronoun is repeated for 
sake of emphasis, the latter term is in appo- 
sition with the former; as, "They have 



MINOR RULES OF SYNTAX. 173 

hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, 
that can hold no water." 

RULE 15. 

When two or more proper nouns are used 
to distinguish the same individual, they 
should be parsed together; as, Noah Webster, 
William Gullen Bryant. 

RULE 16. 

When two or more nominatives of different 
persons or numbers are taken disjunctively, 
the verb must agree with that which is placed 
next to it ; as, Neither John nor his brothers 
have arrived ; Either you or lam the person 
to whom he alluded. 

RULE 17. 

When two or more nominatives, connected 
by the conjunction and, are preceded by dis- 
tributive adjectives, a verb or pronoun agree- 
ing with them must be in the singular num- 
ber ; as, Every animal and every vegetable 
shows the power of its Creator. 

RULE 18. 

The pronoun you, though formerly plural, 
is now applied alike to one person or to more ; 
as, You are the man ; You are the men. 

RULE 19. 

What is sometimes improperly substituted 
for the conjunction that ; as, I do not know 
but what it will rain before night. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

KULE 20. 

The use of as, instead of the conjunction 

that, is a common error ; as, I do not know 

as I can go. It should be, I do not know that 

I can go. 

KULE 21. 

Every finite verb must have a nominative 
either expressed or understood. 

KULE 22. 

Intransitive verbs should not be used 
transitively ; as, The farmer grows corn. It 
should be, He raises or cultivates corn. 

KULE 23. 

Methinks is inelegant, and is now seldom 
used by speakers and writers of refined taste. 

KULE 24. 

Verbs in the infinitive mood are sometimes 
governed by adverbs or conjunctions; as, 
The Bible teaches men how to die ; He can 
do better than to associate with you. 

KULE 25. 

An infinitive verb is sometimes used abso- 
lutely; as, " To confess the truth, I was in 
fault;" " To be, or not to be — that is the 
question." 

KULE 26. 

The use of the preposition for before a 
verb in the infinitive mood, is improper ; as, 
He intends for to go. It should be, He in- 
tends to go. 



MINOR RULES OF SYNTAX. 175 

EULE 27. 

When an adjective is preceded by a finite 
verb, and is not followed by a noun, it gen- 
erally belongs to the nominative of the verb ; 
as, God is omnipresent. 

RULE 28. 

Adjectives may belong to verbs in the in- 
finitive mood, or to a part of a sentence ; as, 
To lie is despicable ; To die a rriartyr for the 
truth is glorious. 

EULE 29. 

The comparative degree of adjectives 
should be used when we compare • the quali- 
ties of two persons or things only ; as, Byron 
was a better poet than Southey ; The Pacific 
Ocean is larger than the Atlantic. When 
more than two objects are compared, the 
superlative degree should be employed; as, 
Edwin is the tallest of the three. 

EULE 30. 

Adjectives that have in themselves a su- 
perlative signification, should not be com- 
pared; hence such expressions as more om- 
niscient, most universal, etc., are improper. 

EULE 31. 

The substitution of the personal pronoun 
them for the demonstrative objective those, is 
a gross vulgarism. Instead of saying, Give 
me them books, I should say, Give me those 
books. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXILE 32. 

When an adjective preceded by the is used 
without a noun expressed, it should generally 
be parsed as a noun ; as, " Blessed are the 
poor in spirit ; for theirs is the kingdom of 
heaven." 

KTJLE 33. 

When the comparative degree of an adjec- 
tive is employed , the latter term of compari- 
son should never include the former: as, 
Gold is more precious than all the metals. 
It should be, than all the other metals. 

ETJLE 34. 

When two or more adjectives belong to 
the same noun, the shortest and least im- 
portant should be placed first ; as, A large 
mellow apple. 

KULE 35. 

In the expressions red-hot iron, deep-hlue 
cloth, etc., the tw T modifying words should 
be taken together, and parsed as a compound 
adjective, whether they are joined by a hy- 
phen or not. 

KULE 36. 

The participle, with its adjuncts, is often 
taken as a substantive, or participial phrase, 
which may be in the nominative case to a 
verb, or the object of a transitive verb, or 
of a preposition ; as, Acting dishonestly de- 
stroys reputation ; By promising much, we 
increase responsibility. 



MINOR RULES OF SYNTAX. 177 

RULE 37. 

When the definitive adjective the precedes 
the participle, the preposition of should fol- 
low it ; as, " By the observing of truth, you 
will command respect." 

RULE 38. 

Adverbs sometimes modify prepositions; 
as, He ascended almost to the summit of the 
mountain. 

RULE 39. 

Two or more words are often taken as an 
adverbial phrase; as, He was placed on high. 

RULE 40. 

An adverbial conjunction connects two 
parts of a sentence, and generally modifies a 
verb in each; as, I will see him when he 
/ comes. 

RULE 41. 

Yes and yea, when they express a simple 
affirmation, and no and nay, when they ex- 
press a simple negation, are usually equiva- 
lent to a whole sentence ; as, Did he do the 
work ? Yes. Here yes is equivalent to the 
sentence, He did do the ivork. 

RULE 42. 

A majority of writers consider the word 
amen an adverb ; it is usually placed inde- 
pendently at the beginning or end of a 
prayer or declaration, and signifies so he it, 
or so let it be. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

BTTLE 43. 

An adverb, when used to modify a noun, 
becomes an adjective ; as, " My hither way" 

EULE 44. 

Adverbs are usually placed before adjec- 
tives or adverbs, and after verbs, or between 
the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " He made 
a very sensible discourse ; he spoke unaffectedly 
and forcibly, and was attentively heard by the 
whole assembly. 

EULE 45. 

Conjunctions connect words and sentences ; 
as, Grace and Sarah learn well ; " Blessed is 
the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth 
his commandments." 

EULE 46. 

When conjunctions connect different moods 
and tenses of verbs, the nominative should 
generally be repeated ; as, I have long desired 
to see him, but J fear I shall be disappointed. 

EULE 47. 

Conjunctions implying contingency, should 
be followed by the subjunctive mood; as, If 
he come to-morrow, I will pay him his wages. 

EULE 48. 

The conjunctions if though, unless ', except, 
whether, and lest, are generally followed by 
the subjunctive mood. 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 179 

KULE 49. 

Prepositions show the relation between 
nouns and pronouns; as, Charles is pi the 
field ; /will go with you. 

RULE 50. 

Interjections have no dependence on other 
words in construction; as, "Ah! they are 
dead r 

ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 
THE PLEASURES OF HOPE. — PART II. 

In joyous youth, what soul hath never known 
Thought, feeling, taste, harmonious tb its own ? 
Who hath not paused while Beauty's pensive eye 
Asked from his heart the homage of a sigh ? 
Who hath not owned, with rapture-smitten frame, 
The power of grace, the magic of a name ? 

There be, perhaps, who barren hearts avow, 
Cold as the rocks on Torneo's hoary brow ; 
There be, whose loveless wisdom never failed, 
In self-adoring pride securely mailed : 
But triumph not, ye peace-enamored few ! 
Fire, Nature, Genius, never dwelt with you ! 
For you no fancy consecrates the scene 
Where rapture uttered vows, and wept between ; 
'T is yours, unmoved to sever and to meet ; 
No pledge is sacred, and no home is sweet ! 

Who that would ask a heart to dullness wed, 
The waveless calm, the slumber of the dead? 
No : the wild bliss of Nature needs alloy, 
And care and sorrow fan the fire of joy ! 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And say, without our hopes, without our fears, 
Without the home that plighted love endears, 
Without the smiles from partial beauty won, 
! what were man ? — a world without a sun ! 

Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour, 
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower ! 
In vain the viewless seraph lingering there, 
At starry midnight charmed the silent air ; 
In vain the wild-bird caroled on the steep, 
To hail the sun, slow-wheeling from the deep ; 
In vain, to soothe the solitary shade, 
Aerial notes in mingling measure played ; 
The summer wind that shook the spangled tree, 
The whispering wave, the murmur of the bee ;— 
Still slowly passed the melancholy day, 
And still the stranger wist not where to stray — 
The world was sad ! — the garden was a wild ! 
And Man, the hermit, sighed — till Woman smiled ! 

True, the sad power to generous hearts may bring 
Delirious anguish on his fiery wing ! 
Barred from delight by Fate's untimely hand, 
By wealthless lot, or pitiless command ! 
Or doomed to gaze on beauties that adorn 
The smile of triumph, or the frown of scorn ; 
While Memory watches o'er the sad review 
Of joys that faded like the morning dew ! 
Peace may depart — and life and nature seem 
A barren path— a wildness, and a dream ! 

But can the noble mind forever brood, 
The willing victim of a weary mood, 
On heartless cares that squander life away, 
And cloud young genius brightening into day ? 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 181 

Shame to the coward thought that e'er betrayed 

The noon of manhood to a myrtle shade ! 

If Hope's creative spirit can not raise 

One trophy sacred to thy future days, , 

Scorn the dull crowd that haunt the gloomy shrine 

Of hopeless love to murmur and repine ! 

But should a sigh of milder mood express 

Thy heart-warm wishes, true to happiness, 

Should Heaven's fair harbinger delight to pour 

Her blissful visions on thy pensive hour, 

No tear to blot thy memory's pictured page, 

No fears but such as fancy can assuage ; 

Though thy wild heart some hapless hour may miss, 

The peaceful tenor of unvaried bliss, 

(For love pursues an ever-devious race, 

True to the winding lineaments of grace ;) 

Yet still may Hope her talisman employ 

To snatch from Heaven anticipated joy, 

And all her kindred energies impart 

That burn the brightest in the purest heart ! 

When first the Rhodian's mimic art arrayed 
The queen of Beauty in her Cyprian shade,. 
The Happy master mingled on his piece 
Each look that charmed him in the fair of Greece ! 
To faultless Nature true, he stole a grace 
From every finer form and sweeter face ! 
And, as he sojourned on the iEgean isles, 
Wooed all their love, and treasured all their smiles ! 
Then glowed the tints, pure, precious, and refined, 
And mortal charms seemed heavenly when combined. 
Love on the picture smiled ! Expression poured 
Her mingling spirit there — and Greece adored ! 

So thy fair hand, enamored Fancy ! gleans 
The treasured pictures of a thousand scenes ; 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Thy pencil traces on the Lover's thought 
Some cottage-home, from towns and toil remote, 
Where Love and Lore may claim alternate hours, 
•With Peace embosomed in Idalian bowers 
Remote from busy Life's bewildered way, 
O'er all his heart shall Taste and Beauty sway ; 
Free on the sunny slope or winding shore, 
With hermit steps, to wander and adore ; 
There shall he love, when genial morn appears, 
Like pensive Beauty smiling in her tears, 
To watch the bright'ning roses of the sky, 
And muse on Nature with a poet's eye ! 
And when the sun's last splendor lights the deep, 
The woods, and waves, and murmuring M'inds asleep ; 
When fairy harps th' Hesperian planets hail, 
And the lone cuckoo sighs along the vale, 
His path shall be where streamy mountains swell 
Their shadowy grandeur o'er the narrow dell, 
Where moldering piles and forests intervene, 
Mingling with darker tints the living green ! 
No circling hills his ravished eye to bound, 
Heaven, earth, and ocean, blazing all around ! 

The moon is up — the watchtower dimly burns — 
And down the vale his sober steps returns ; 
But pauses oft as winding rocks convey 
The still sweet fall of Music far away ! 
And oft he lingers from his home awhile 
To watch the dying notes ! — and start, and smile ! 

Let Winter come ! let polar spirits sweep 
The darkening world, and tempest-troubled deep ! 
Though boundless snows the withered heath deform, 
And the dim sun scarce wanders through the storm! 
Yet shall the smile of social love repay, 
With mental light, the melancholy day ! 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 183 

And, when its short and sullen noon is o'er, 
The ice-chained waters slumbering on the shore, 
How bright the fagots in his little hall 
Blaze on the hearth, and warm the pictured wall ! 

How blest he names, in Love's familiar tone, 
The kind fair friend, by nature marked his own ! 
And, in the waveless mirror of his mind, 
Views the fleet years of pleasure left behind, 
Since Anna's empire o'er his heart began ! 
Since first he called her his before the holy man ! 

Trim the gay taper in his rustic dome, 
And light the wint'ry paradise of home ! 
And let the half- uncurtained window hail 
Some way-worn man benighted in the vale ! 
Now, while the moaning nightwind rages high, 
As sweep the shot-stars down the troubled sky, 
While fiery hosts in Heaven's wide circle play, 
And bathe in livid light the milky way, 
Safe from the storm, the meteor, and the shower, 
Some pleasing page shall charm the solemn hour — 
With pathos shall command, with wit beguile 
A generous tear of anguish, or a smile — 
Thy woes, Arion ! and thy simple tale 
O'er all the heart shall triumph and prevail ! 
Charmed as they read the verse too sadly true, 
How gallant Albert, and his weary crew, 
Heaved all their guns their foundering bark to save, 
And toiled, and shrieked, and perished on the wave ! 

Yes, at the dead of night, by Lonna's steep, 
The seamen's cry was heard along the deep ; 
There on his funeral waters, dark and w T ild, 
The dying father blest his darling child ! 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mercy! snield her innocence, he cried — 
Spent on the prayer his bursting heart, and died! 

Or will they learn how generous worth sublimes 
The robber Moor, and pleads for all his crimes! 
How poor Amelia kissed, with many a tear, 
His hand blood-stained, but ever, ever dear ! 
Hung on the tortured bosom of her lord, 
And wept, and prayed perdition from his sword! 
Nor sought in vain ! at that heart-piercing cry 
The strings of nature cracked with agony ! 
He, with delirious laugh, the dagger hurled, 
And burst the ties that bound him to the world! 

Turn from his dying words, that smite with steel 
The shuddering thoughts, or wind them on the 
Turn to the gentler melodies that suit [wheel — 
Thalia's harp, or Pan's Arcadian lute; 
Or, down the stream of Truth's historic page, 
From clime to clime descend, from age to age ! 

Yet, there, perhaps, may darker scenes obtrude 
Than Fancy fashions in her wildest mood ; 
There shall he pause, with horrent brow, to rate 
What millions died — that Caesar might be great ! 
Or learn the fate that bleeding thousands bore, 
Marched by their Charles to Dneiper's swampy shore ; 
Faint in his wounds, and shivering in the blast, 
The Swedish soldier sunk — and groaned his last ! 
File after file, the stormy showers benumb, 
Freeze every standard-sheet, and hush the drum ! 
Horsemen and horse confessed the bitter pang, 
And arms and warriors fell with hollow clang ! 
Yet, ere he sunk in Nature's last repose, 
Ere life's warm torrent to the fountain froze, 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 185 

The dying man to Sweden turned his eye, 
Thought of his home, and closed it with a sigh; 
Imperial pride looked sullen on his plight, 
And Charles beheld— nor shuddered at the sight ! 

Above, below, in Ocean, Earth, and sky, 
Thy fairy worlds, Imagination, lie, 
And Hope attends, companion of the way, 
Thy dream by night, thy visions of the day ! 
In yonder pensile orb, and every sphere, 
That gems the starry girdle of the year ! 
In those unmeasured worlds, she bids thee tell, 
Pure from their God, created millions dwell, 
Whose names and natures, unrevealed below, 
We yet shall learn, and wonder as we know 
For, as Iona's Saint, a giant form, 
Throned on her towers, conversing with the storm, 
(When o'er each Runic altar, weed-entwined, 
The vesrjer-clock tolls mournful to the w r ind,) 
Counts every wave-worn isle, and mountain hoar 
From Kilda to the green Ierne's shore ; 
So, when thy pure and renovated mind 
This perishable dust hath left behind, 
Thy seraph eye shall count the starry train, 
Like distant isles embosomed in the main ; 
Rapt to the shrine where motion first began, 
And light and life in mingling torrent ran, 
From whence each bright rotundity was hurled, 
The throne of God — the center of the world ! 

Oh ! vainly wise, the moral Muse has sung 
That suasive Hope hath but a Syren tongue I 
True ; she may sport with life's untutored day, 
Nor heed the solace of its last decay, 
The guileless heart her happy mansion spurn, 
And part like Ajut — never to return ! 
16 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

But yet, methinks, when Wisdom shall assuage 
The griefs and passions of our greener age, 
Though dull the close of life, and far away- 
Each flower that hailed the dawning of the day; 
Yet o'er her lovely hopes that once were dear, 
The time-taught spirit, pensive, not severe, 
With milder griefs her aged eye shall fill, 
And weep their falsehood, though she love them still. 

Thus, with forgiving tears, and reconciled, 
The king of Judah mourned his rebel child ! 
Musing on days, when yet the guiltless boy 
Smiled on his sire, and filled his heart with joy ! 
My Absalom ! (the voice of nature cried !) 
Oh ! that for thee thy father could have died ! 
For bloody was the deed, and rashly done, 
That slew my Absalom ! — my son ! — my son ! 

Unfading hope ; when life's last embers burn, 
When soul to soul, and dust to dust return ! 
Heaven to thy charge resigns the awful hour ! 
Oh ! then thy kingdom comes ! Immortal Power ! 
What though each spark of earth-born rapture fly, 
The quivering lip, pale cheek, and closing eye, 
Bright to the soul thy seraph hands convey 
The morning dream of life's eternal day — 
Then, then the triumph and the trance begin ! 
And all the Phenix spirit burns within ! 

Oh ! deep enchanting prelude to repose, 
The dawn of bliss, the twilight of our woes ! 
Yet half I hear the parting spirit sigh, 
It is a dread, an awful thing to die ! 
Mysterious worlds, untraveled by the sun ! 
Where Time's far-wandering tide has never run, 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 187 

From your unfathomed shades, and viewiess spheres, 
A warning comes, unheard by other ears. 
'T is Heaven's commanding trumpet, long and loud, 
Like Sinai's thunder, pealing from the clouds! 
While Nature hears, with terror-mingled trust, 
The shock that hurls her fabric to the dust ; 
And, like the trembling Hebrew, when he trod 
The roaring waves, and called upon his God, 
With mortal terrors clouds immortal bliss, 
And shrieks, and hovers o'er the dark abyss . 

Daughter of Faith, awake, arise, illume 
The dread unknown, the chaos of the tomb ! 
Melt and dispel, ye specter doubts, that roll 
Cimmerian darkness on the parting soul ! 
Fly, like the moon-eyed herald of Dismay ; 
Chased on his night-steed by the star of day ! 
The strife is o'er — the pangs of Nature close, 
And life's last rapture triumphs o'er her woes. 
Hark! as the spirit eyes, with eagle gaze, 
The noon of Heaven undazzled by the blaze, 
On heavenly winds that waft her to the sky, 
Float the sweet tones of star-born melody ; . 
Wild as that hallowed anthem sent to hail 
Bethlehem's shepherds in the lonely vale, 
When Jordan hushed his waves, and midnight still 
Watched on the holy towers of Zion's hill ! 

Soul of the just ! companion of the dead ! 
Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled ? 
Back to its heavenly source thy being goes, 
Swift as the comet wheels to whence he rose ;. 
Doomed on his airy path awhile to burn, 
And doomed, like thee, to travel and return — 
Hark ! from the world's exploding center driven, 
With sounds that shook the firmament of Heaven, 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Careers the fiery giant, fast and far, 

On bick'ring wheels, and adamantine car; 

From planet whirled to planet more remote, 

He visits realms beyond the reach of thought ; 

But, wheeling homeward, when his course is run, 

Curbs the red yoke, and mingles with the sun ! 

So hath the traveler of earth unfurled 

Her trembling w T ings, emerging from the world; 

And o'er the path by mortal never trod, 

Sprung to her source, the bosom of her God. 

Oh ! lives there, Heaven ! beneath thy dread ex- 
One hopeless, dark Idolater of Chance, [panse, 
Content to feed, with pleasures unrefined, 
The lukewarm passions of a lowly mind ; 
Who, mold'ring earthward, 'reft of every trust, 
In joyless union wedded to the dust, 
Could all his parting energy dismiss, 
And call this barren world sufficient bliss ?— 
There live, alas ! of Heaven-directed mien, 
Of cultured soul, and sapient eye serene, 
Who hailed thee, Man ! the pilgrim of a day, 
Spouse of the worm, and brother of the clay ! 
Frail as the leaf in Autumn's yellow bower, 
Dust in the wind, or dew upon the flower ! 
A friendless slave, a child without a sire, 
Whose mortal life, and momentary fire, 
Lights to the grave his chance-created form, 
As ocean-wrecks illuminate the storm ; 
And when the gun's tremendous flash is o'er, 
To Night and Silence sink for evermore ! 
Are these the pompous tidings ye proclaim, 
Lights of the world, and demi-gods of Fame? 
Is this your triumph — this your proud applause, 
Children of Truth, and champions of her cause? 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 189 

For this hath Science searched on weary wing, 
By shore and sea- — each mute and living thing? 
Launched with Iberia's pilot from the steep, 
To worlds unknown, and isles beyond the de^ep ? 
Or round the cope her living chariot driven, 
And wheeled in triumph through the signs of heaven? 

Oh ! star-eyed Science, hast thou wandered there 
To waft us home the message of despair ? 
Then bind the palm, thy sage's brow to suit, 
Of blasted leaf, and death-distilling fruit ! 
Ah me ! the laureled wreath that murder rears, 
Blood-nursed, and watered by the widow's tears, 
Seems not so foul, so tainted, and so dread, 
As waves the nightshade round the skpptic head; 
What is the bigot's torch, the tyrant's chain? 
I smile on death, if heavenward Hope remain! 
But if the warring winds of Nature's strife 
Be all the faithless charter of my life, 
If Chance awaked, inexorable power ! 
This frail and feverish being of an hour, 
Doomed o'er the world's precarious scene to sweep, 
Swift as the tempest travels on the deep, 
To know Delight but by her parting smile, 
And toil, and wish, and weep a little while; 
Then melt, ye elements, that formed in vain 
This troubled pulse, and visionary brain ! 
Fade, ye wild flowers, memorials of my doom ! 
And sink, ye stars, that light me to the tomb ! 
Truth, ever lovely, since the world began, 
The foe of tyrants, and the friend of man — - 
How can thy words from balmy slumber start 
Reposing Virtue, pillowed on the heart ! 
Yet, if thy voice the note of thunder rolled, 
And that were true which Nature never told, 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

Let Wisdom smile not on her conquered field ; 
No rapture dawns, no pleasure is revealed ! 
Oh ! let her read, nor loudly, nor elate, 
The doom that bars us from a better fate ; 
But, sad as angels for the good man's sin, 
Weep to record, and blush to give it in ! 

And well may Doubt, the mother of Dismay, 
Pause at her martyr's tomb, and read the lay. 
Down by the wilds of yon deserted vale, 
It darkly hints a melancholy tale ! 
There, as the homeless madman sits alone, 
In hollow winds he hears a spirit moan ! 
And there, they say, a wizard orgie crowds, 
When the moon lights her watchtower in the clouds. 
Poor, lost Alonzo ! Pate's neglected child ! 
Mild be the doom of Heaven- — as thou wert mild ! 
For oh ! thy heart in holy mold was cast, 
And all thy deeds were blameless, but the last. 
Poor, lost Alonzo ! still I seem to hear 
The clod that struck thy hollow-sounding bier ! 
When Friendship paid, in speechless sorrow drowned, 
Thy midnight rites, but not on hallowed ground ! 

Cease every joy to glimmer on my mind, 
But leave, oh ! leave the light of Hope behind ! 
What though my winged hours of bliss have been 
Like angel- visits, few and far between ! 
Her musing mood shall every pang appease, 
And charm, when pleasures lose the power to please. 

Yes ! let each rapture, dear to Nature, flee ; 
Close not the night of Fortune's stormy sea — 
Mirth, Music, Friendship, Love's propitious smile 
Chase every care, and charm a little while, 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 191 

Ecstatic throbs the fluttering heart employ, 
And all her strings are harmonized to joy ! 
But why so short is Love's delighted hour? 
Why fades the dew on Beauty's sweetest flower ? 
Why can no hymned charm of Music heal 
The sleepless woes impassioned spirits feel ? 
Can Fancy's fairy hands no vail create, 
To hide the sad realities of fate ? 

No ! not the quaint remark, the sapient rule, 
Nor all the pride of Wisdom's worldly school, 
Have power to soothe, unaided and alone, 
The heart that vibrates to a feeling tone ! 
When step-dame Nature every bliss recalls, 
Fleet as the meteor o'er the desert faUs ; 
When, 'reft of all, yon widowed sire appears 
A lonely hermit in the vale of years ; 
Say, can the world one joyous thought bestow 
To Friendship, weeping at the couch of woe ? 
No ! but a brighter soothes the last adieu — 
Souls of impassioned mold, she speaks to you ; 
W r eep not, she says, at Nature's transient pain, 
Congenial spirits part to meet again ! 

What plaintive sobs thy filial spirit drew, 
What sorrow choked thy long and last adieu, 
Daughter of Conrad ! when he heard his knell, 
And bade his country and his child farewell ! 
Doomed the long isles of Sydney Cove to see, 
The martyr of his crimes, but true to thee ? 
Thrice the sad father tore thee from his heart, 
And thrice returned, to bless thee and to part ; 
Thrice from his trembling lips he murmured low 
The plaint that owned unutterable woe ; 
Till Faith, prevailing o'er his sullen doom, 
As burst the morn on night's unfathomed gloom, 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Lured his dim eye to deathless hopes sublime, 
Beyond the realms of Nature and of time ! 

" And weep not thus (he cried), young Ellenore, 
My bosom bleeds, but soon shall bleed no more ! 
Short shall this half-extinguished spirit burn, 
And soon these limbs to kindred dust return ! 
But not, my child, with life's precarious fire, 
The immortal ties of Nature shall expire 
These shall resist the triumph of decay 
When time is o'er, and worlds have passed away ! 
Cold in the dust this perished heart may lie, 
But that which warmed it once shall never die ! 
That spark unburied in its mortal frame, 
With living light, eternal and the same, 
Shall beam on Joy's interminable years, 
Unvailed by darkness — unassuaged by tears ! 

" Yet on the barren shore and stormy deep, 
One tedious watch is Conrad doomed to weep ; 
But when I gain the home without a friend, 
And press the uneasy couch where none attend, 
This last embrace, still cherished in my heart, 
Shall calm the struggling spirit ere it part ! 
Thy darling form shall seem to hover nigh, 
And hush the groan of life's last agony ! 

" Farewell ! when strangers lift thy father's bier, 
And place my nameless stone without a tear ; 
When each returning pledge hath told my child 
That Conrad's tomb is on the desert piled ; 
And when the dream of troubled fancy sees 
Its lonely rank grass waving in the breeze ; 
Who then will soothe thy grief when mine is o'er? 
Who will protect thee, helpless Ellenore ? 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 193 

Shall secret scenes thy filial sorrows hide, 
Scorned by the world, to factious guilt allied ? 
Ah ! no ; methinks the generous and the goqd 
Will woo thee from the shades of solitude ! 
O'er friendless grief compassion shall awake, 
And smile on Innocence, for Mercy's sake !" 

Inspiring thought of rapture yet to be, 
The tears of love were hopeless, but for thee ! 
If in that frame no deathless spirit dwell, 
If that faint murmur be the last farewell, 
If fate unite the faithful but to part, 
Why is their memory sacred to the heart ? 
Why does the brother of my childhood seem 
Restored awhile in every pleasing dream? 
Why do I joy the lonely spot to view, 
By artless friendship blessed when life was new ? 

Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime 
Pealed their first notes to sound the march of Time, 
Thy joyous youth began — but not to fade ; 
When all the sister planets have decayed ; 
When wrapt in fire the realms of ether glow, 
And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below ; 
Thou, undismayed, shalt o'er the ruins smile, 
And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile ! 

Campbell. 



PLEASURES OF IMAGINATION. — BOOK I. 

With what attractive charms this goodly frame 
Of Nature touches the consenting hearts 
Of mortal men ; and what the pleasing stores 
Which beauteous imitation thence derives 
To deck the poet's or the painter's toil; 
IT 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

My verse unfolds. Attend, ye gentle powers 

Of musical delight ! and while I sing 

Your gifts, your honors, dance around my strain, 

Thou, smiling queen of every tuneful breast, 

Indulgent Fancy ! from the fruitful banks 

Of Avon, whence thy rosy fingers cull 

Fresh flowers and dews to sprinkle on the turf 

"Where Shakspeare lies, be present; and with thee 

Let Fiction come, upon her vagrant wings, 

Wafting ten thousand colors through the air, 

Which, by the glances of her magic eye, 

She blends and shifts at will, through countless forms, 

Her wild creation. Goddess of the lyre, 

Which rules the accents of the moving sphere, 

Wilt thou, eternal Harmony ! descend, 

And join this festive train ? for with thee comes 

The guide, the guardian of their lovely sports, 

Majestic Truth ; and where Truth deigns to come, 

Her sister Liberty will not be far. 

Be present, all ye genii, who conduct 

The wandering footsteps of the youthful bard, 

New to your springs and shades : who touch his ear 

With finer sounds : who highten to his eye 

The bloom of Nature ; and before him turn 

The gayest, happiest attitude of things. 

Oft have the laws of each poetic strain 
The critic verse employed ; yet still unsung 
Lay this prime subject, though importing most 
A poet's name ; for fruitless is th ? attempt, 
By dull obedience and by creeping toil 
Obscure, to conquer the severe ascent 
Of high Parnassus. Nature's kindling breath 
Must fire the chosen genius ; Nature's hand 
Must string his nerves, and imp his eagle-wings, 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 195 

Impatient of the painful steep, to soar 
High as the summit ; there to breathe at large 
Ethereal air ; with bards and sages old, 
Immortal sons of praise. These flattering scenes, 
To this neglected labor court my song ; 
Yet not unconscious what a doubtful task 
To paint the finest features of the mind, 
And to most subtle and mysterious things 
Give color, strength, and motion. But the love 
Of Nature and the muses bids explore, 
Through secret paths erewhile untrod by man, 
The fair poetic region, to detect 
Untasted springs, to drink inspiring draughts, 
And shade my temples with unfading flowers, 
Culled from the laureate vale's profound recess, 
Where never poet gained a wreath before. 

From Heaven my strains begin; from Heaven 
descends 
The flame of genius to the human breast, 
And love and beauty, and poetic joy 
And inspiration. Ere the radiant Sun 
Sprang from the east, or 'mid the vault of night 
The Moon suspended her serener lamp ; 
Ere mountains, woods, or streams adorned the globe, 
Or Wisdom taught the sons of men her lore ; 
Then lived th' Almighty One ; then, deep retired 
In his unfathomed essence, viewed the forms, 
The forms eternal of created things ; 
The radiant Sun, the Moon's nocturnal lamp, 
The mountains, woods, and streams, the rolling globe, 
And Wisdom's mien celestial. From the first 
Of days, on them his love divine he fixed, 
His admiration ; till in time complete, 
What he admired and loved, his vital smile 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Unfolded into being. Hence the breath 

Of life informing each organic frame ; 

Hence the green earth, and wild resounding waves ; 

Hence light and shade alternate ; warmth and cold ; 

And clear autumnal skies, and vernal showers, 

And all the fair variety of things. 

But not alike to every mortal eye 
Is this great scene unvailed. For since the claims 
Of social life, to different labors urge 
The active powers of man ; with wise intent 
The hand of Nature, on peculiar minds, 
Imprints a different bias, and to each 
Decrees its province in the common toil. 
To some she taught the fabric of the sphere, 
The changeful moon, the circuit of the stars, 
The golden zones of Heaven ; to some she gave 
To weigh the moment of eternal things, 
Of time, and space, and Fate's unbroken chain, 
And Will's quick impulse : others by the hand 
She led o'er vales and mountains, to explore 
What healing virtue swells the tender veins 
Of herbs and flowers ; or what the beams of morn 
Draw forth, distilling from the clefted rind 
In balmy tears. But some to higher hopes 
Were destined ; some within a finer mold 
She wrought, and tempered with a purer flame. 
To these the Sire Omnipotent unfolds 
The world's harmonious volume, there to read 
The transcript of himself. On every part 
They trace the bright impressions of his hand : 
In earth or air, the meadow's purple stores, 
The Moon's mild radiance, or the virgin's form 
Blooming with rosy smiles, they see portrayed 
That uncreated beauty, which delights 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 197 

The mind supreme. They also feel her charms, 
Enamored ; they partake the eternal joy. 

For as old Memnon's image, long renowned 
By fabling Nilus, to the quivering touch 
Of Titan's ray, with each repulsive string 
Consenting, sounded through the warbling air 
Unbidden strains ; even so did Nature's hand 
To certain species of external things, 
Attune the finer organs of the mind : 
So the glad impulse of congenial powers, 
Or of sweet sounds, or fair-proportioned form, 
The grace of motion, or the bloom of light, 
Thrills through imagination's tender frame, 
From nerve to nerve : all naked and alive, 
They catch the spreading rays ; till now the soul 
At length discloses every tuneful spring, 
To that harmonious movement from without 
Responsive. Then the inexpressive strain 
Diffuses its enchantment ; Fancy dreams 
Of sacred fountains and Elysian groves, 
And vales of bliss : the intellectual power 
Bends from his awful throne a wondering ear, 
And smiles : the passions, gently soothed away, 
Sink to divine repose, and love and joy 
Alone are waking ; love and joy serene 
As airs that fan the summer. Oh ! attend, 
Whoe'er thou art, whom these delights can touch, 
Whose candid bosom the refining love 
Of Nature warms, listen to my song ; 
And I will guide thee to her favorite walks, * 
And teach thy solitude her voice to hear, 
And point her loveliest features to thy view 

Know then, whate'er of Nature's pregnant stores, 
Whate'er of mimic Art's reflected forms 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

With love and admiration thus inflame 
The powers of fancy, her delighted sons 
To three illustrious orders have referred ; 
Three sister-graces, whom the painter's hand. 
The poet's tongue, confesses ; the sublime, 
The wonderful, the fair. I see them dawn ! 
I see the radiant visions, where they rise, 
More lovely than when Lucifer displays 
His beaming forehead through the gates of morn, 
To lead the train of Phoebus and the Spring. 

Say, why was man so eminently raised 
Amid the vast creation ; why ordained 
Through life and death to dart his piercing eye, 
With thoughts beyond the limit of his frame ; 
But that the Omnipotent might send him forth 
In sight of mortal and immortal powers, 
As on a boundless theater, to run 
The great career of justice ; to exalt 
His generous aim to all diviner deeds ; 
To chase each partial purpose from his breast, 
And through the mists of passion and of sense, 
And through the tossing tide of chance and pain, 
To hold his course unfaltering, while the voice 
Of Truth and Virtue, up the steep ascent 
Of Nature, calls him to his high reward, [burns 
The applauding smile of Heaven ? Else wherefore 
In mortal bosoms this unquenched hope, 
That breathes from day to day sublimer things, 
And mocks possession ? wherefore darts the mind, 
With such resistless ardor to embrace 
Majestic forms ; impatient to be free, 
Spurning the gross control of willful might ; 
Proud of the strong contention of her toils ; 
Proud to be daring ? Who but rather turns 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 199 

To Heaven's broad fire his unconstrained view, 
Than to the glimmering of a waxen flame ? 
Who that, from Alpine hights, his laboring eye 
Shoots round the wide horizon, to survey ^ 
Nilus or Ganges rolling his bright wave 
Through mountains, plains, through empires black 

with shade, 
And continents of sand, will turn his gaze 
To mark the windings of a scanty rill 
That murmurs at his feet ? The high-born soul 
Disdains to rest her heaven-aspiring wing 
Beneath its native quarry. Tired of Earth 
And this diurnal scene, she springs aloft 
Through fields of air ; pursues the flying storm ; 
Rides on the volleyed lightning through the heavens ; 
Or, yoked with whirlwinds and the northern blast, 
Sweeps the long tract of day. Then high she soars 
The blue profound, and hovering round the Sun, 
Beholds him pouring the redundant stream 
Of light ; beholds his unrelenting sway 
Bend the reluctant planets to absolve 
The fatal rounds of Time. Thence far effused, 
She darts her swiftness up the long career 
Of devious comets ; through its burning signs 
Exulting measures the perennial wheel 
Of Nature, and looks back on all the stars, 
Whose blended light, as with a milky zone, 
Invests the orient. Now amazed she views 
The empyreal waste, where happy spirits hold, 
Beyond this concave heaven, their calm abode ; 
And fields of radiance, whose unfading light- 
Has traveled the profound six thousand years, 
Nor yet arrives in sight of mortal things. 
Even on the barriers of the world untired 
She meditates the eternal depth below ; 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Till half recoiling, down the headlong steep 

She plunges ; soon overwhelmed and swallowed up 

In that immense of being. There her hopes 

Rest at the fatal goal. For from the birth 

Of mortal man, the sovereign Maker said, 

That not in humble nor in brief delight, 

Not in the fading echoes of Renown, 

Power's purple robeSj nor Pleasure's flowery lap, 

The soul should find enjoyment ; but from these 

Turning disdainful to an equal good, 

Through all the ascent of things enlarge her view, 

Till every bound at length should disappear, 

And infinite perfection close the scene. 

Call now to mind what high capacious powers 
Lie folded up in man ; how far beyond 
The praise of mortals, may the eternal growth 
Of nature to perfection half divine, 
Expand the blooming soul ? What pity then 
Should sloth's unkindly fogs depress to Earth 
Her tender blossom ; choke the streams of life, 
And blast her spring ! Far otherwise designed 
Almighty Wisdom ; Nature's happy cares 
The obedient heart far otherwise incline. 
Witness the sprightly joy when aught unknown 
Strikes the quick sense, and wakes each active power 
To brisker measures : witness the neglect 
Of all familiar prospects, though beheld 
With transport once ; the fond attentive gaze 
Of young astonishment ; the sober zeal 
Of age, commenting on prodigious things, 
For such the bounteous Providence of Heaven, 
In every breast implanting this desire 
Of objects new, and strange, to urge us on 
With unremitted labor to pursue 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 201 

Those sacred stores that wait the ripening soul, 
In Truth's exhaustless bosom. What need words 
To paint its power ? For this the daring youth 
Breaks from his weeping mother's anxious arm3, 
In foreign climes to rove ; the pensive sage, 
Heedless of sleep, or midnight's harmful damp, 
Hangs o'er the sickly taper ; and untired 
The virgin follows, with enchanted step, 
The mazes of some wild and wondrous tale, 
From morn to eve ; unmindful of her form, 
Unmindful of the happy dress that stole 
The wishes of the youth, when every maid 
With envy pined. Hence, finally, by night 
The village matron, round the blazing hearth, 
Suspends the infant audience with her tales 
Breathing astonishment ! of witching rhymes, 
And evil spirits ; of the deathbed call 
Of him who robbed the widow, and devoured 
The orphans' portion ; of unquiet souls 
Risen from the grave to ease the heavy guilt 
Of deeds in life concealed ; of shapes that w T alk 
At dead of night, and clank their chains, and wave 
The torch of Hell around the murderer's bed. 
At every solemn pause the crowd recoil, 
Gazing each other speechless, and congealed 
With shivering sighs ; till eager for the event, 
Around the beldame all erect they hang, 
Each trembling heart with grateful terrors quelled. 

But lo ! disclosed in all her smiling pomp, 
Where beauty onward moving claims the verse - 
Her charms inspire ; the freely-flowing verse 
In thy immortal praise, form divine, 
Smooths her mellifluent stream. Thee, Beauty, thee, 
The regal dome, and thy enlivening ray 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The mossy roofs adore ; thou, better Sun ! 
Forever beamest on the enchanted heart 
Love, and harmonious wonder, and delight 
Poetic, Brightest progeny of Heaven ! 
How shall I trace thy features ? where select 
The roseate hues to emulate thy bloom ? 
Haste then, my song, through Nature's wide expanse, 
Haste then, and gather all her comeliest wealth, 
Whate'er bright spoils the florid earth contains, 
Whatever the waters, or the liquid air, 
To deck thy lovely labor. Wilt thou fly 
With laughing Autumn to the Atlantic isles, 
And range with him the Hesperian field, and see, 
Where'er his fingers touch the fruitful grove, 
The branches shoot with gold ; where'er his step 
Marks the glad soil, the tender clusters grow 
With purple ripeness, and invest each hill 
As with the blushes of an evening sky ? 
Or wilt thou rather stoop thy vagrant plume, 
Where gliding through his daughter's honored shade3, 
The smooth Peneus from his glassy flood 
Reflects purpureal Tempe's pleasant scene ? 
Fair Tempe ! haunt beloved of sylvan powers, 
Of Nymphs and Fauns ; where in the golden age 
They played in secret on the shady brink 
With ancient Pan ; while round their choral steps 
Young Hours and genial Gales with constant hand 
Showered blossoms, odors, showered ambrosial dews, 
And Spring's Elysian bloom. Her flowery store 
To thee nor Tempe shall refuse ; nor watch 
Of winged Hydra guard Hesperian fruits 
From the free spoil. bear then, unreproved, 
Thy smiling treasures to the green recess 
Where young Dione stays. With sweetest airs 
Entice her forth to lend her angel-form 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 203 

For Beauty's honored image. Hither turn 
Thy graceful footsteps ; hither, gentle maid, 
Incline thy polished forehead : let thine eyes 
Effuse the mildness of their azure dawn ; 
And may the fanning breezes waft aside 
Thy radiant locks : disclosing, as it bends 
With airy softness from the marble neck, 
The cheek fair-blooming, and the rosy lip, 
Where winning smiles and pleasures sweet as love, 
With sanctity and wisdom, tempering blend 
Their soft allurement. Then the pleasing force 
Of nature, and her kind parental care, 
Worthier I'd sing: then all the enamored youth, 
With each admiring virgin, to my lyre 
Should throng attentive, while I point on high 
Where Beauty's living image, like the morn 
That wakes in Zephyr's arms the blushing May, 
Moves oiiward ; or as Venus, when she stood 
Effulgent on the pearly car, and smiled, 
Fresh from the deep, and conscious of her form, 
To see the Tritons tune their vocal shells, 
And each cerulean sister of the flood 
With loud acclaim attend her o'er the waves, 
To seek the Idalian bower. Ye smiling band 
Of youths and virgins, who through all the maze 
Of young desire with rival steps pursue 
This charm of beauty ; if the pleasing toil 
Can yield a moment's respite, hither turn 
Your favorable ear, and trust my words. 
I do not mean to wake the gloomy form 
Of Superstition, dressed in Wisdom's garb, 
To damp your tender hopes ; I do not mean 
To bid the jealous thunderer to fire the heavens, 
Or shapes infernal rend the groaning Earth, 
To fright you from your joys : my cheerful song 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

With better omens calls you to the field, 

Pleased with your generous ardor in the chase, 

And warm like you. Then tell me, for ye know, 

Does Beauty ever deign to dwell where health 

And active use are strangers ? Is her charm 

Confessed in aught, whose most peculiar ends 

Are lame and fruitless? Or did Nature mean 

This pleasing call the herald of a lie ; 

To hide the shame of discord and disease, 

And catch with fair hypocrisy the heart 

Of idle faith ? no ! with better cares 

The indulgent mother, conscious how infirm 

Her offspring tread the paths of good and ill, 

By this illustrious image, in each kind 

Still most illustrious where the object holds 

Its native powers most perfect, she by this 

Illumes the headstrong impulse of desire, 

And sanctifies his choice. The generous glebe 

Whose bosom smiles with verdure, the clear tract 

Of streams delicious to the thirsty soul, 

The bloom of nectared fruitage ripe to sense, 

And every charm of animated things, 

Are only pledges of a state sincere, 

The integrity and order of their frame, 

When all is well within, and every end 

Accomplished. Thus was beauty sent from heaven, 

The lovely ministress of truth and good 

In this dark world: for truth and good are one, 

And beauty dwells in them, and they in her, 

With like participation. Wherefore, then, 

sons of earth ! would ye dissolve the tie ? 

wherefore, with a rash impetuous aim, 

Seek ye those flowery joys with which the hand 

Of lavish Fancy paints each flattering scene 

Where beauty seems to dwell, nor once inquire 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 205 

Where is the sanction of eternal truth, 

Or where the seal of undeceitful good, 

To save your search from folly. Wanting these, 

Lo ! Beauty withers in your void embrace, , 

And with the glittering of an idiot's toy, 

Did fancy mock your vows. Nor let the gleam 

Of youthful hope, that shines upon your hearts, 

Be chilled or clouded at this awful task, 

To learn the lore of undeceitful good, 

And truth eternal. Though the poisonous charms 

Of baleful Superstition guide the feet 

Of servile numbers through a dreary way 

To their abode, through deserts, thorns, and mire ; 

And leave the wretched pilgrim all forlorn 

To muse at last amid the ghostly gloom 

Of graves, and hoary vaults, and cloistered cells ; 

To walk with specters through the midnight shade, 

And to the screaming owl's accursed song 

Attune the dreadful workings of his heart : 

Yet be not ye dismayed. A gentler star ' 

Your lovely search illumines. From the grove 

Where Wisdom talked with her Athenian sons, 

Could my ambitious hand entwine a wreath, 

Of Plato's olive with the Mantuan bay, 

Then should my powerful verse at once dispel 

Those monkish horrors : then in light divine 

Disclose the Elysian prospect, where the steps 

Of those whom Nature charms, through blooming 

walks, 
Through fragrant mountains and poetic streams, 
Amid the train of sages, heroes, bards, 
Led by their winged Genius and the choir 
Of laureled Science and harmonious Art, 
Proceed, exulting, to the eternal shrine, 
Where Truth, conspicuous with her sister-twins, 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The undivided partners of her sway, 

With Good and Beauty reigns. let not us, 

Lulled by luxurious Pleasure's languid strain, 

Or crouching to the frowns of Bigot rage, 

let us not a moment pause to join 

That godlike band. And if the gracious Power 

Who first awakened my untutored song, 

Will to my invocation breathe anew 

The tuneful spirit ; then through all our paths, 

Ne'er shall the sound of this devoted lyre 

Be wanting ; whether on the rosy mead 

When summer smiles, to warm the melting heart 

Of Luxury's allurement; whether firm 

Against the torrent and the stubborn hill 

To urge bold Virtue's unremitted nerve, 

And wake the strong divinity of soul 

That conquers Chance and Fate ; or whether struck 

For sounds of triumph, to proclaim her toils 

Upon the lofty summit, round her brow 

To twine the wreath of incorruptive praise ; 

To trace her hallowed light through future worlds, 

And bless Heaven's image in the heart of man. 

Thus with a faithful aim have we presumed, 
Adventurous, to delineate Nature's form; 
Whether in vast, majestic pomp arrayed 
Or dressed for pleasing wonder, or serene 
In Beauty's rosy smile. It now remains 
Through various being's fair-proportioned scale, 
To trace the rising luster of her charms, 
From their first twilight shining forth at length 
To full meridian splendor. Of degree 
The least and lowliest in the effusive warmth 
Of colors mingling with a random blaze, 
Doth beauty dwell. Then higher in the line 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 207 

And variation of determined shape, 
Where Truth's eternal measures mark the bound 
Of circle, cube, or sphere. The third ascent 
Unites this varied symmetry of parts 
With color's bland allurement; as the pearl 
Shines in the concave of its azure bed, 
And painted shells indent their speckled wreath. 
Then more attractive rise the blooming forms. 
Through which the breath of Nature has infused 
Her genial power to draw with pregnant veins 
Nutritious moisture from the bounteous Earth, 
In fruit and seed prolific : thus the flowers 
Their purple honors with the spring resume; 
And thus the stately tree with Autumn bends 
With blushing treasures. But more lovely still 
Is Nature's charm, where to the full 'consent 
Of complicated members to the bloom 
Of color, and the vital change of growth, 
Life's holy flame and piercing sense are given, 
And active motion speaks the tempered soul : 
So moves the bird of Juno ; so the steed 
With rival ardor beats the dusty plain, 
And faithful dogs, with eager airs of joy, 
Salute their fellows. Thus doth Beauty dwell 
There most conspicuous, even in outward shape, 
Where dawns the high expression of a mind : 
By steps conducting our enraptured search 
To that eternal origin, whose power, 
Through all the unbounded symmetry of things, 
Like rays effulging from the parent Sun, 
This endless mixture of her charms diffused. 
Mind, mind alone, (bear witness Earth and Heaven !) 
The living fountains in itself contains 
Of beauteous and sublime : here, hand in hand, 
Sit paramount the Graces; here enthroned, 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Celestial Venus, with divinest airs, 

Invites the soul to never-fading joy. 

Look then abroad through Nature, to the range 

Of planets, suns and adamantine spheres, 

Wheeling unshaken through the void immense ; 

And speak, man ! does this capacious scene 

With half that kindling majesty dilate 

The strong conception, as when Brutus rose 

Refulgent from the stroke of Caesar's fate, 

Amid the crowd of patriots ; and his arm 

Aloft extending, like eternal Jove, 

When guilt brings down the thunder, called aloud 

On Tully's name, and shook his crimsom steel, 

And bade the father of his country hail? 

For lo ! the tyrant prostrate on the dust, 

And Rome again is free ! is aught so fair 

In all the dewy landscapes of the Spring, 

In the bright eye of Hesper or the Morn, 

In Nature's fairest forms, is aught so fair 

As virtuous Friendship ? as the candid blush 

Of him w T ho strives with fortune to be just ? 

The graceful tear that streams for others' woes? 

Or the mild majesty of private life, 

Where Peace with ever blooming olive crowns 

The gate ; where Honor's liberal hands effuse 

Unenvied treasures, and the snowy wrings 

Of Innocence and Love protect the scene ? 

Once more search, undismayed, the dark profound 

Where Nature works in secret; view the beds 

Of mineral treasure, and the eternal vault 

That bound the hoary Ocean; trace the forms 

Of atoms moving with incessant change 

Their elemental round; behold the seeds 

Of being, and the energy of life, 

Kindling the mass with ever-active flame : 



ANALYTICAL EXERCISES. 209 

Then to the secrets of the working mind 
Attentive turn : from dim oblivion call 
Her fleet, ideal band; and bid them, go! 
Break through Time's barrier, and o'ertake the hour 
That saw the heavens created : then declare 
If aught were found in those eternal scenes 
To move thy wonder now. For what are all 
The forms which brute, unconscious matter wears, 
Greatness of bulk, or symmetry of parts ? 
Not reaching to the heart, soon feeble grows 
The superficial impulse ; dull their charms, 
And satiate soon, and pall the languid eye. 
Not so the moral species, nor the powers 
Of genius and design ; the ambitious mind 
There sees herself: by these congenial forms 
Touched and awakened, with intenser act 
She bends each nerve, and meditates well-pleased 
Her features in the mirror. For of all 
The inhabitants of Earth, to man alone 
Creative Wisdom gave to life his eye 
To Truth's eternal measures ; thence to frame 
The sacred laws of action and of will, 
Discerning justice from unequal deeds, 
And temperance from folly. But beyond 
This energy of Truth, whose dictates bind 
Assenting reason, the benignant sire, 
To deck the honored paths of just and good, 
Has added bright imagination's rays : 
Where Virtue, rising from the awful depth 
Of Truth's mysterious bosom, doth forsake 
The unadorned condition of her birth ; 
And, dressed by Fancy, in ten thousand hues, 
Assumes a various feature, to attract 
With charms responsive to each gazer's eye, 
The hearts of men. Amid his rural walk, 
18 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The ingenuous youth, whom solitude inspires 
With purest wishes, from the pensive shade 
Beholds her moving, like a virgin-muse 
That wakes her lyre to some indulgent theme 
Of harmony and wonder : while among 
The herd of servile minds her strenuous form 
Indignant flashes on the patriot's eye, 
And through the rolls of memory appeals 
To ancient honor, or, in act serene, 
Yet watchful, raises the majestic sword 
Of public power, from dark ambition's reach 
To guard the sacred volume of the laws. 

Genius of ancient Greece ! whose faithful steps 
Well-pleased I follow through the sacred paths 
Of Nature and of Science ; nurse divine 
Of all heroic deeds and fair desires ! 
Oh ! let the breath of thy extended praise 
Inspire my kindling bosom to the hight 
Of this untempted theme. Nor be my thoughts 
Presumptuous counted, if amid the calm 
That soothes this vernal evening into smiles, 
I steal impatient from the sordid haunts 
Of Strife and low Ambition, to attend 
Thy sacred presence in the sylvan shade, 
By their malignant footsteps ne'er profaned. 
Descend, propitious ! to my favored eye ; 
Such in thy mien, thy warm, exalted air, 
As when the Persian tyrant, foiled and stung 
With shame and desperation, gnashed his teeth 
To see thee rend the pageants of his throne ; 
And at the lightning of thy lifted spear 
Crouched like a slave. Bring all thy martial spoils, 
Thy psalms, thy laurels, thy triumphal songs, 
Thy smiling band of arts, thy godlike sires 



PROSODY. 211 

Of civil wisdom, thy heroic youth 

Warm from thy schools of glory. Guide my way 

Through fair Lyceum's walk, the green retreats 

Of Academus, and the thymy vale, » 

Where, oft enchanted with Socratic sounds, 

Illissus pure devolved his tuneful stream 

In gentler murmurs. From the blooming store 

Of these auspicious fields, may I unblamed 

Transplant some living blossom to adorn 

My native clime : while far above the flight 

Of Fancy's plume aspiring, I unlock 

The springs of ancient Wisdom ! while I join 

Thy name, thrice-honored ! with the immortal praise 

Of Nature, while to my compatriot youth 

I point the high example of thy son£, 

And tune to Attic themes the British lyre. 

Akenside. 



PROSODY. 



Prosody treats of the pronunciation of 
words, the laws of versification, and punc- 
tuation. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation depends chiefly upon ac- 
cent and quantity. 

Accent is a particular stress of voice by 
which a certain syllable of a word is distin- 
guished from others. 

Quantity denotes the measure of a sylla- 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ble, or that which determines the time in 
which it is pronounced. 

Ease and euphony in speaking, depend prin- 
cipally on correct accentuation and quantity. 

Emphasis is a particular force of voice, 
given to certain words, in order to render 
them more significant. 

Emphasis has nearly the same relation to 
words in sentences, that accent has in refer- 
ence to syllables in words. 

In speaking, a multiplicity of emphatic 
w r ords should be carefully avoided ; they de- 
stroy the beauty of a discourse, and offend 
the ear. 

VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a cer- 
tain number and variety of syllables, accord- 
ing to particular rules. 

Rhyme is the correspondence of sound between 
the terminating syllables of different lines ; as, 

"Fair Thames, flow gently from thy sacred spring, 
"While on thy banks Sicilian muses sing; 
Let vernal airs through trembling osiers play, 
And Albion's cliffs resound the rural lay. 11 

Blank Verse is verse in which the last syllables 
of different lines do not correspond in sound ; as, 

"At once the Four spread out their starry icings 
With dreadful shade contiguous, and the orbs 
Of his fierce chariot rolled, as with the sound 
Of torrent floods, or of a num'rous host" 

A foot is a part of a verse, and consists of two 
or three syllables. 



VERSIFICATION. 213 

A verse consists of a certain number of con- 
nected feet forming one line. 

A Hemistich is half a verse; as, 

"Jove pouring darkness " 

A Couplet or Distich consists of two verses ; as, 

" Thetis once more ascends the blessed abodes, 
And treads the brazen threshold of the gods." 

A Triplet consists of three verses ; as, 

"And there the fallen chief is laid, 
In tasselled garb of skins arrayed, 
And girded with his wampum braid." 

A Stanza or Stave is a combination of several 
verses, varying in number according to the poet's 
fancy, and constituting a regular division of a 
poem, or of a song; as, 

"Amid the storm they sang, 

And the stars heard, and the sea; 
And the sounding aisles of the dim woods rang 
To the anthem of the free." 

All feet used in poetry may be reduced to eight 
kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as 
follows : 

DISSYLLABLES, TRISYLLABLES. 

Iambus - - Dactyl - *>~ 

Trochee - ~ Amphibrach 

Spondee-- Anapest ~~- 

Pyrrhic - - Tribrach 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and 
the last accented ; as, 

Inflate, deride 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and 
the last unaccented ; as, 

Duty, render. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables ac- 
cented; as, 

North wind. 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables un- 
accented ; as, 

" On the tall tree." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the 
two latter unaccented ; as, 

Cannibal, edible. 

An Amphibrach has the first and the last sylla- 
ble unaccented, and the middle one accented ; as, 

Commandment, defender. 

An Anapest has the first two syllables unac- 
cented, and the last accented ; as, 

Intervene, advertise. 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, 

Measurable, numerable. 

OF IAMBIC YERSE. 

Pure Iambic verses have no other feet than the 
Iambic ; and are invariably accented on the second, 
fourth, sixth, and the other even syllables. 

1. Iambic verse of one foot with an additional 
short syllable ; as, 

11 Disdain | ing, 
Complain | ing." 

We have no poem of this measure in the English 
language ; it is the shortest form of the Iambic in 
use, and occurs only in stanzas. 

2. Of two feet ; as, 

Proud an | gels fell, 
Dtfwn In | to helL 



VERSIFICATION. 215 



3. Of three feet; as, 



"To guide | their way | appears 
The light | of oth | er spheres." 



4. Of four feet ; as, 

" Our voi | ces took [ a drea | ry tone, 
An ech | o of | the diin | geon stone." 

5. Of five feet ; as, 

"O'er gold | en sands | let rich J Pacto | lus flow, 
And trees | weep am | ber on | the banks | of Po." 

This is called heroic measure, and is generally- 
used in epic verse ; it is sometimes varied by a 
hypermetrical or redundant syllable; it may be 
used either with or without rhyme ; as, 

"Indus | trious | Hermes | only | was a | wake." 

6. Of six feet; as, 

" A need | less Al | exan | drine ends | the song, [along." 
Which like | a wound | ed snake | drags its | slow length | 

This form of our Iambic is called the Alexandrine 
measure, and consists of six Iambuses ; it is some- 
times introduced into heroic rhyme, and when used 
sparingly and with judgment, gives a pleasing 
variety ; as, 

" Can tyrants but by tyrants conquered be, 

And Freedom find no champion and no child, 

Such as Columbia saw arise, when she 

Sprung forth a Pallas, armed and undefiled 

Or must such minds be nourished in the wild, • 
Deep in the unpruned forest, 'mid the roar 

Of cataracts, where nursing nature smiled 
On infant Washington? Has earth no more 
Such seeds | within | her breast, j or Eu | rope no | 
such shore?" 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Of seven feet; as, 

" Let not | this weak | unknow | ing hand 
Presume | thy bolts | to threw, 
And deal | damna | tion round | the land, 
On each | I judge | thy foe." 

This seventh and last form of our Iambic measure 
consists of seven Iambuses ; they were formerly 
embraced in one line ; as, 

" Let not | this weak | unknow | ing hand | presume | thy 
bolts | to throw." 

OF TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language 
consists of one Trochee and an additional long 
syllable ; as, 

K Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace." 

2. The second form consists of two Trochees; as, 

"Wishes | rising, 
Thoughts stir | prising." 

Sometimes this form takes an additional syllable ; 



" In the 
Fables 



days of | old, 
plainly | told." 

3. The third species is composed of three Tro- 
chees; as, 

" Go where | glory | waits thee, 
But when | fame e | lates thee." 

This form frequently admits an additional syl- 
lable ; as, 

" Hark ! they | whisper | angels | .say, 
Sister | spirit, | come a | way." 

4. The fourth form has four Trochees ; as, 

" Round a | holy | calm dif | fusing, 
Love of | peace and | lonely | musing." 

This form seldom takes an additional syllable. 



VERSIFICATION. 21 7 

5. The fifth species contains five Trochees ; as, 

"-All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, 
All that | dwell in | pala | ces or | garrets." 

This form is seldom used, except in ironical or 
facetious composition. 

6. The sixth and last form is composed of six 
Trochees ; as, 

u On a | mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd j swain and | viewed the f rolling | 
billow. " 

In Trochaic verse, the accent always falls on the 
odd syllables. 

OF DACTYLIC VERSE. 
Dactylic feet are seldom used alone in composi- 
tion ; there are, however, a few specimens to be 
found ; as, 

" From the low | pleasures of | this fallen [ nature.' 1 
"Bird of the | wilderness, 
Blithesome and | cumberless, 
Sweet be thy | matin o'er | moorland and [ lea. 
Emblem of | happiness, 
Blest is thy | dwelling-place — 
O! to a | bide in the | desert with | thee!" 
" Farewell to others, but | never we | part, 
Heir to my royalty, | son of my j heart! 
Bright is the | diadem, | boundless the | sway, 
Or kingly | the death which ] awaits us to- | day ! " 

Dactylic feet are seldom perfectly regular. 

OF ANAPESTIC VERSE. 
Each of the following lines consist of a single 
Anapest : 

"In a sweet 
Resonance 
All their feet 
In the dance 
All the night 
Tinkled light." 

19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Each of the following lines has two Anapests : 

-* Where the sun J loves to pause 
With so fond | a delay, 
That the night | only draws 
A thin vail | o'er the day." 

This form admits sometimes an additional sylla- 
ble; as, 

" He is gone | on the mount [ ain, 
He is lost | to the for | est, 
Like a sum | mer dried fount | ain, 

When our need | was the sor | est. 
Like the dew | on the mount | ain, 
Like the foam | on the riv | er, 
Thou art gone | and forev | er ! n 

The following lines are composed of three Ana- 
pests : 

" O ye woods | spread your "branch [ es apace — 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly ; 
I would hide j with the beasts | of the chase, 
I would van | ish from ev ) ery eye! " 

The following lines have four Anapests ; 

u Through the depths | of Loch Kat ] rine the steed j shall 
career; 
O'er the Peak | of Ben Lo | mond the gal | ley shall 

steer ; 
And the rocks | of Craig Roy | ston like i | cicles melt, 
Ere our wrongs | be forgot j or our ven | geance unfelt!" 

In the following there is an additional syllable : 

"If they rob | us of name | and pursue j us with bea | gles, 
Give their roof [ to the flame [ and their flesh | to the 
ea | gles. [riv | er, 

While there's leaves | in the for | est and foam | on the 
MacGregor, | despite them, — shall still flour j ish for- 
ev ) er ! " 

OF POETIC PAUSES. 

A Pause is an entire cessation of voice, while 
speaking or reading. 

Pauses are of two kinds ; one to mark the sense, 



VERSIFICATION. 219 

the other for melody; these are totally distinct 
from each other. 

Pauses used to mark the sense, are called Sen- 
tential Pauses; those used for melody, are , called 
Harmonic Pauses. 

The Sentential Pauses are those indicated by the 
signs used in punctuation ; the principal points 
used in marking the Sentential Pauses, are the 
comma, the semicolon, the colon, and the period. 

The Harmonic Pauses relate to the rhythm of 
the verse ; they are divided into the Final Pauses 
and the Oesural Pauses. 

These sometimes coincide with the Sentential 
Pauses, though they often exist independently, 
that is where there is no stop in the sense. 

The Final Pause takes place at the end of the 
line, closes the verse, and marks the measure. 

Without the Pinal Pause, the most sublime po- 
etic composition sinks into a sort of half-measured 
prose. For example, take the following from 
Milton : 

" Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that for- 
bidden tree, whose mortal taste brought death into tha 
world, and all our woe, with loss of Eden, till one greater 
man restore us, and regain the blissful seat, sing, heavenly 
muse ! " 

The above is from one of the sublimest poems 
in our language, yet it sounds like mere poetic 
prose. If, however, the Final Pause is observed 
in reading the passage, it will be restored to its 
true state of verse : 

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 

. Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly muse! " 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

These examples plainly show that blank verse 
should be read in such a manner, as to make every 
line sensible to the ear. 

The Cesural Pause preserves the melody, with- 
out, in any way, interfering with the sense. In 
making the Cesural Pause, there is no variation of 
voice, but a mere cessation. 

The Cesura has relation to the melody, as will 
be seen in the following : 

"Ask for what end" the heavenly bodies shine," 

In this line, the Cesural Pause is after the word 
end. 

The Cesura usually falls on the fourth, fifth, or 
sixth syllable of heroic verse. 

On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the 
second foot ; as : 

"The silver eel" in'shining volumes rolled, 
The yellow carp" in scales bedropped with gold." 

On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the 
third foot; as: 

"Round broken columns" clasping ivy twined, 
O'er heaps of ruin" stalked the stately hind." 

On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third 
foot; as, 

" Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexplored. 
Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord." 

A line may be divided into three portions, by 
two Cesuras ; as, 

" Outstretched he lay" on the cold ground" and oft looked 
up to heaven." 

There is a division of the Cesura called the 
Demi-Cesura, which divides the line into four 
parts. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 221 

The following lines admit the Demi-Cesural 
Pause, and exemplify it. 

" Glows' while he reads'' but trembles' as he writes." 
"Reason the card" but passion' is the gale." > 
" Eides / in the whirlwind" and directs 7 the storm." 

The regular return of the Cesura and Demi- 
Cesara, often gives remarkable sweetness to the 
poetic numbers ; as will be seen in the following 
lines : 

" Warms 7 in the sun," refreshes in 7 the breeze, 
Glows 7 in the stars/ 7 and blossoms 7 in the trees; 
Lives 7 through all life, 77 extends through 7 all extent, 
Spreads 7 undivided, 77 operates 7 unspent ; 
Breathes 7 in our souls, 77 informs our 7 mortal part, 
As full/ as perfect, 77 in a hair 7 as heart; 
As full, 7 as perfect, 77 in vile man 7 that' mourns, 
As in 7 the seraph 77 that adores 7 and burns." 

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

A Figure of Speech usually implies a depar- 
ture from simplicity of expression. 

In figurative language, words and sentences are 
to be understood in a sense different from their 
literal signification ; as, 

u Blossoms, and fruits, and flowers, together rise, 
And the whole year in gay profusion lies." 

Figures of Speech, when used with propriety, 
add strength and dignity to a subject. The sun 
rises, is a common and trite expression ; but the 
idea is sublime when given in the figurative lan- 
guage of Thompson : 

"But yonder comes the powerful king of day, 
Rejoicing in the East ." 

Figures should be judiciously chosen, and should 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

always be adapted to the subject which they are 
intended to illustrate. 

The field of figurative language is very extensive. 
All nature opens her inexhaustible stores, and in- 
vites us to cull figures from every department within 
the range of her vast domain. 

The following are the principal Figures of Speech: 

Metaphor, Antithesis, 

Simile, Synecdoche, 

Personification, Climax, 

Allegory, Paralipsis, 

Irony, Apostrophe, 

Hyberbole, Interrogation, 

Metonymy, Exclamation, 
Vision. 

METAPHOR. 

A Metaphor is a figure depending entirely on 
the resemblance which one thing bears to another. 
It is very nearly allied to simile or comparison. In 
the following, we have two metaphors. 

" Thy sword is a beam of fire by thy side ; thy 
spear is a pine that defies the storm." Here the 
language is purely metaphoric. If, however, we 
say, Thy sword is like a beam of fire by thy side ; 
thy spear is like a pine that defies the storm, we 
change the figure to simile. 

SIMILE. 

Simile expresses the resemblance which one 
thing bears to another ; as, " Terrible was the 
gleam of his steel ; it was like the green meteor 
of death ;" " Swaran was like the fire of the desert 
in the echoing heath of Gormal." 



FXaDHES OF SPEECH. 223 



PERSONIFICATION. 

Prosopopoeia or Personification, is that figure 
of speech by which we attribute life and action to 
inanimate things; as, "The wilderness and the soli- 
tary place shall be glad for them : and the desert 
shall rejoice and blossom as the rose/' " When 
Israel went out of Egypt, the house of Judah from 
a people of strange language ; the sea saw it and 
fled: Jordan was driven back! The mountains 
skipped like rams, and the little hills like lambs. 
What ailed thee, thou sea! that thou fleddest? 
Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven back ? Ye 
mountains, that ye skipped like rams ; and ye little 
hills, like lambs? Tremble, thou earth, at the 
presence of the God of Jacob." 

The figure Personification is in very general use ; 
it abounds in the Sacred Writings, and in almost 
every species of composition. There is a disposi- 
tion in man, especially when under excitement, to 
animate everything in nature. He addresses the 
rocks, the trees, the mountains, the valleys, the 
rivers, the ocean, the sun, the moon, the stars, and 
a thousand other inanimate objects, as though they 
were really living and rational creatures. 

The following, from Bishop Sherlock, is a beau- 
tiful exemplification of this figure. Natural Reli- 
gion is personified. He is comparing our Savior 
with Mahomet. 

" Go, to your Natural Keligion: lay before her Mahomet, 
and his disciples, arrayed in armor and blood, riding in 
triumph over the spoils of thousands who fell by his vic- 
torious sword. Show her the cities which he set in flames, 
the countries which he ravaged and destroyed, and the 
miserable distress of all the inhabitants of the earth. 
When she has viewed him in this scene, carry her into his 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

retirement; show her the Prophet's chamber; his concu- 
bines and his wives; and let her hear him allege revela- 
tion, and a divine commission, to justify his adultery and 
lust. When she is tired with this prospect, then show her 
the blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing good to all the 
sons of men. Let her see him in his most retired priva- 
cies : let her follow him to the mount, and hear his devo- 
tions and supplications to God. Carry her to his table, to 
view his poor fare, and hear his heavenly discourse. Let 
her attend him to the tribunal, and consider the patience 
with which he endured the scoffs and reproaches of his 
enemies. Lead her to his cross; let her view him in the 
agony of death, and hear his last prayer for his persecu- 
tors : Father, forgive them, for they know not what they 
do ! When Natural Religion has thus viewed both, ask 
her which is the Prophet of God ? But her answer we 
have already had, when she saw part of this scene, through 
the eyes of the Centurian who attended at the cross. By 
him she spoke, and said, Truly this man was the Son of 
God." 

The following from Milton, is also a fine illus- 
tration of the figure : 

" Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 
In pangs, and nature gave a second groan; 
Sky lowered, and, muttering thunder, some sad drops 
Wept, at completing of the mortal sin." 

In the following, the impatience of Adam to 
know his origin, is supposed to prompt the person- 
ification of all the objects he beheld, in order to 
procure information. 

u Thou sun, said I, fair light ! 
And thou enlightened earth, so fresh and gay ! 
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures tell, 
Tell if you saw, how came I thus, how here ?" 

The following beautiful passage is from Thom- 
son. It is one of the finest specimens of personi- 
fication. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 225 

u But yonder comes the powerful king of day 
Rejoicing in the east. The lessening cloud, 
The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow, 
Tipt with ethereal gold, his near approach 

Betoken glad : — . i 

-By thee refined, 

In brisker measures, the relucent stream 
Frisks o'er the mead. The precipice abrupt, 
Projecting horror on the blackened flood, 
Softens at thy return. The desert joys, 
Wildly, through all his melancholy bounds, 
Rude ruins glitter: and the briny deep, 
Seen from some pointed promontory's top, 
Reflects from every fluctuating wave, 
A glance extensive as the day." 

ALLEGORY. 

An Allegory consists of several metaphors, so 
arranged as to constitute a sort of parable or fable. 
As an Allegory is the representation of one thing 
by another which resembles it, it may be viewed as 
a metaphor continued. In the use of Allegory, 
great care should be taken to keep up a clear and 
marked distinction between the figurative and lite- 
ral meaning. Allegory was a favorite method of 
delivering instruction in ancient times; for what 
we call fables or parables, are no other than alle- 
gories. 

The following example of Allegory, taken from 
the eightieth Psalm, is exquisitely fine. 

u Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast 
out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 
before it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled 
the land. The hills were covered with the shadow - of it : 
and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She 
sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the 
river. Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that 
all they which pass by the way do pluck her ? The boar 
out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

field doth devour it. Return, we beseech thee, God of 
Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this 
vine!" 

IRONY. 

Irony is a figure of speech, by which we wish to 
convey an idea entirely different from the literal 
import of the words which we use. This figure is 
not used to deceive, but for the purpose of adding 
force to our observations. Ironical exhortation is 
a very agreeable kind of figure, which, after having 
set the inconveniences of a thing in the clearest 
light, conclude with a feigned encouragement to 
pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having 
described the noise and tumult of Rome, he adds 
ironically : 

"Go, now, and study tuneful verse at Rome." 

The proper subjects of Irony are vices and follies 
of all kinds. 

The following is a remarkable specimen of Irony, 
taken from the Bible : 

u Cry aloud, for he is a god, either he is talking, or he 
is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he 
sleepeth, and must be awakened." 

The following from Byron may serve as a further 
illustration of this figure : 

" Delightful Bowles ! still blessing and still blessed, 
All like thy strain, but children like it best. 
Now to soft themes thou scornest to confine, 
The lofty numbers of a harp like thine, 
Awake a louder and a loftier strain, 
Such as none heard before, or will again ! 
Where all discoveries jumbled from the flood, 
Since first the leaky ark reposed in mud, 
By more or less, are sung in every book, 
From Captain Noah down to Captain Cook ; 
Bowles ! in thy memory let this precept dwell, 
Stick to thy sonnets, man ! — at least they sell." 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 227 

HYPERBOLE. 

Hyperbole or Exaggeration is a figure of 
speech, which consists in expressing much more 
or less than the truth ; as, 

" He told us that a part of the road from Salinas, in 
Persia, to Julamerk, was so frightful to travel, that a fat, 
spirited horse would, in a single day, suffer so much from 
terror, that before night he would be as thin as a knife- 
blade." 

The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions 
of the size of their leader ; as, 

"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the 
blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon: he sat on the 
shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill." 

Probably no other figure is used so* frequently as 
Hyperbole ; it occurs in all languages, even in 
common conversation. Men of lively imaginations 
are apt to make a very free use of hyperbolical 
expressions ; such as, ruinous as death ; savage as 
a tiger ; swift as the wind ; white as the driven 
snow ; brighter than the sun, etc. Nearly all the 
compliments in common use are Hyperboles of the 
most extravagant character. Speakers and writers 
frequently err greatly by overstraining this figure, 
or by introducing it on improper occasions. In 
the following lines, Dryden compliments King 
Charles the Second at the expense of the sun 
himself: 

That star at your birth shone out so bright, 
It stained the duller sun's meridian light. 

It is impossible to read the following without 



disgust : 



-I found her on the floor 



In all the storm of grief, yet beautiful; 
Pouring forth tears at such a lavish rate, 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

That were the world on fire, they might have drowned 
The wrath of Heaven, and quenched the mighty ruin. 

This frantic exaggeration is from Lee, a cele- 
brated dramatic poet of the seventeenth century. 

METONYMY. 

A Metonymy is a figure by which the cause is 
put for the effect, the effect for the cause, the con- 
tainer for the thing contained, or the sign for the 
thing signified. 

When we say, He reads Homer, we put the cause 
for the effect, meaning Homer's works. On the 
other hand, when we say, Gray hairs should be 
respected, we put the effect for the cause, meaning 
by gray hairs old age. When we say, The kettle 
boils, we substitute the name of the container for 
that of the thing contained. He assumes the 
scepter, is a common expression for entering on 
royal authority, the sign being put for the thing 
signified. 

ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis is a figure founded on the opposition 
or contrast of two objects; as in the following ex- 
ample : " If you wish to enrich a person, study not 
to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires." 

Antithesis presents objects which are in their 
nature opposed to each other in a much stronger 
light. White, for instance, never appears so bright 
as when contrasted with black ; and when both are 
viewed together. The following examples further 
illustrate this figure : 

" The wicked flee when no man pursueth, but the 
righteous are as bold as a lion." u He is a fool among 
judges; among fools, a judge." "If you regulate your 
desires according to the standard of nature, you will never 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 229 

be poor; if according to the standard of opinion, you will 
never be rich." 

"He spoke, and on the rampart's hight arrayed, 
His trusty warriors, few, but undismayed, 
Firm passed and slow, a horrid front they form, 
Still as the breeze, but dreadful as the storm." 

When an author indulges very freely in the use 
of this figure, his style is apt to appear too studied 
and labored. 

SYNECDOCHE. 

When the whole is put for a part, or a part for 
the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for 
a genus ; in general, when any thing less, or any- 
thing more, is put for the precise object meant, the 
figure is called a Synecdoche or Comprehension. 
We say, for instance, A fleet of twenty sail, instead 
of ships. The horse is a noble animal ; The dog 
is a faithful creature ; here an individual is put for 
the species. We sometimes use the head for the 
person, and the waves for the sea. In like manner, 
an attribute may be put for a subject; as, Youth 
for the young, the deep for the sea. This figure 
of speech is very nearly allied to Metonymy. 

CLIMAX. 

Climax or Amplification is a figure which con- 
sists in hightening all the circumstances of an ob- 
ject or action, that we wish to place in a strong 
light. Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, 
when he says : 

" It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; it is 
the hight of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide 
to put him to death ; what name then shall I give to the 
act of crucifying him?" 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following is an example of a beautiful climax, 
taken from the charge of a judge to the jury, in 
the case of a woman accused of murdering her own 
child : 

" Gentlemen, if one man had any how slain another; 
if an adversary had killed his opposer, or a woman occa- 
sioned the death of her enemy; even these criminals would 
have been capitally punished by the Cornelian law; but 
if this guiltless infant, that could make no enemy, had 
been murdered by its own nurse, what punishment would 
not then the mother have demanded? With what cries 
and exclamations would she have stunned your ears ! 
What shall we say, then, when a woman, guilty of homi- 
cide, a mother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath 
comprised all those misdeeds in one single crime ? A 
crime, in its own nature, detestable; in a woman, pro- 
digious; in a mother, incredible; and perpetrated against 
one whose age called for compassion, whose near relation 
claimed affection, and whose innocence deserved the high- 
est favor." 

PARALIPSIS. 

Paralipsis is a figure by which a speaker pre- 
tends to conceal what at the same time he really 
mentions; as, 

" Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman, 
but in process of time, he became so addicted to gaming, 
not to mention Ms drunkenness and debauchery, that he 
soon exhausted his estate, and ruined his constitution." 

APOSTKOPHE. 

An Apostrophe is an address to some person 
who is either absent or dead, as if he were really 
present ; as, 

u father Micipsa ! is this the consequence of thy 
generosity; that he, whom thy goodness raised to an 
equality with thy own children, should be the murderer 
of thy children?" 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 231 

An -Apostrophic address is frequently made to 
personified objects ; as, 

" Death is swallowed up in victory : O death ! where is 
thy sting? grave! where is thy victory?" x 

There are many beautiful examples of Apos- 
trophe in the poems of Ossian ; as, 

" Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, maid of 
Inistore ! Bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer 
than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sunbeam at 
noon over the silence of Morven !" " Come, ye friends of 
my youth, ye soft-sounding voices of Cona, bend from, your 
gold-tinged clouds, and join me in my song." 

INTERROGATION. 

Erotesis or Interrogation is a figure in which 
we put whatever we wish to affirm with great earn- 
estness, in the form of a question ; as, 

" What is there in these days that you have not at- 
tempted? what have you not profaned ? What name shall 
I give to this assembly ? Shall I call you soldiers ? you 
who have besieged with your arms and surrounded with 
a trench the son of your emperor? Shall I call you 
citizens ? you who have so shamefully trampled on the 
authority of the senate ? you who have violated the justice 
due to enemies, the sanctity of embassy, and the rights of 
nations?" 

"Wilt thou my judgment disannul? and must, 
To prove thee righteous, I be proved unjust? 
Hast thou an arm omnipotent, like mine ? 
And like my voice, does thunder burst in thine?" 

EXCLAMATION. 

Ecphonesis or Exclamation denotes some vio- 
lent excitement of the mind; as, 

"Woe is me that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in 
the tents of Kedar!" "0 that my head were waters, and 
mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

night, for the slain of the daughter of my people!" "O 
that I had in the wilderness a lodging-place of wayfaring 
men!" 

" The Desolator desolate ! 
The Victor overthrown ! 
The Arbiter of others fate, 
A Suppliant for his own!" 

VISION. 

Vision is a figure which consists in representing 
something that is past, distant, or future, as actually 
passing before our eyes ; as, 

" I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of 
the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved 
in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps 
of citizens, lying unburied in the midst of their ruined 
country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to 
my view, while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in 
your miseries." 

"I see before me the Gladiator lie; 

He leans upon his hand ; his manly brow 
Consents to death, but conquers agony, 

And his drooped head sinks gradually low; 
And through his side the last drops ebbing flow 

From the red gash, fall heavy, one by one, 
Like the first of a thunder-shower, and now 

The arena swims around him — he is gone, 

Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch 
who won. 

He heard it, but he heeded not: his eyes 

Were with his heart, and that was far away; 

He recked not of the life he lost, nor prize, 
But where his rude hut by the Danube lay; 

There were his young barbarians all at play, 
There was their Dacian mother — he their sire, 

Butchered to make a Roman holiday ! 

All this rushed with his blood. Shall he expire, 
And unavenged ? Arise ! ye Goths, and glut your ire I' 



PUNCTUATION. 233 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written 
composition by points or stops, for the purpose of 
conveying to the reader the exact meaning, and 
directing him in the management of his voice. 

The principal stops are the following : — The 
Comma (,), the Semicolon (;), the Colon (:), the 
Period (.), the Note of Interrogation (?), the Note 
of Exclamation (!), the Parenthesis (()), and the 
Dash (_). 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause ; the 
Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the 
Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon ; and 
the Period, a pause double that of the colon. The 
pauses required by the other marks, mtfst be deter- 
mined by the structure of the sentence, and the 
position which they occupy in it. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma is used to separate those parts of a 
sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, 
as to be only one degree removed from that close 
relation which admits no pause. 

KULE 1. 

A simple sentence, when it is a short one, admits 
only a period at the end; as, "Every part of matter 
swarms with living creatures." 

KULE 2. 

When a simple sentence is a long one, and the 
nominative is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, 
a comma must be inserted before the verb ; as, 
" Too many of the pretended friendships of youth, 
are mere combinations in pleasure; "To be totally 
20 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in 
character/' 

EULE 3. 

The simple members of a compound sentence 
should be separated by commas ; as, " When the 
graces of novelty are worn off, admiration is suc- 
ceeded by indifference;' 5 " Crafty men contemn 
studies, simple men admire them, and wise men 
use them." 

RULE 4. 

When the members of a compound sentence are 
closely connected, the comma is unnecessary; as, 
" Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." 

EULE 5. 

Two words of the same part of speech, when con- 
nected by a conjunction, do not admit the comma 
between them ; as, " The captain and the sailors 
were lost;" "Time brings a gentle and powerful 
opiate to all misfortunes ;" " The man of order 
catches and arrests the hours as they fly;" "When 
thy friend is calumniated, openly and boldly espouse 
his cause." 

EULE 6. 

When words of the same part of speech are con- 
nected by conjunctions understood, they must be 
separated by commas ; as, " Reason, passion, an- 
swer one great end;" "He is a plain, honest man." 

RULE 7. 

Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, parti- 
ciples, or adverbs, with or without a conjunction, 
are separated by commas ; as, " Poetry, music, and 
painting are fine arts;" "David was a brave, wise, 
and pious man ;" " In a letter, we may advise, ex- 



PUNCTUATION. 235 

hort, comfort, and discuss;" "A man, fearing, 
serving, and loving his Creator, lives for a noble 
purpose ;" " To live soberly, righteously, and 
piously, comprehends the whole of our duty/' 

RULE 8. 

When words follow each other in pairs, they are 
separated in pairs by a comma ; as, " Hope and 
fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our lives;" 
" Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, 
uniform and consistent." 

BTJLE 9. 

Words used in a direct address, the nominative 
case absolute, detached affirmations or phrases, and 
other important clauses, are separated from the other 
parts of a sentence by a comma; as, "My son, give 
me thy heart;" "His father dying, he succeeded to 
the estate ;" "Providence has, I think, displayed a 
tenderness for mankind;" "The decision of patron- 
age, who was but half a goddess, has been some- 
times erroneous ;" " The sciences, after a thousand 
indignities, retired from the palace of patronage." 

BTJLE 10. 

A single name in apposition is not separated by 
a comma ; as, " The apostle Paul reasoned before 
king Agrippa." 

RULE 11. 

When a name in apposition is accompanied with 
an adjunct, the adjunct must have a comma .before 
and after it; as, "Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, 
was eminent for his zeal and knowledge ;" " Peter 
the Great, Emperor of Russia, did much to advance 
civilization." 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EULE 12. 



The comma is used to mark antithesis, or remark- 
able points in a sentence, and sometimes to separate 
words closely dependent in construction ; as, " A 
good man will love himself too well to lose, and his 
neighbor too well to win an estate by gaming ;" 
" Prosperity gains friends and adversity tries 
them ;" " It is harder to avoid censure, than to 
gain applause." 

"Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full." 

KTTLE 13. 

All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, at the be- 
ginning, middle, or end of a sentence, are separated 
from it by commas ; as, " Vices, like shadows, toward 
the evening of life, grow great and monstrous ;" 
" With gratitude, I remember his goodness to me;" 
" I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to me ;" 
"His talents, formed for great enterprises, could 
not fail of rendering him conspicuous ;" " In your 
most secret actions, suppose that you have all the 
world for witnesses ;" "I saw the Captain, as he 
was called." 

KULE 14. 

When two parts of a sentence have their natural 
order inverted, a comma is placed between them ; 
as, " To God, nothing is impossible ;" that is, 
"Nothing is impossible to God." 

EULE 15. 

The relative pronoun generally admits a comma 
before it, when it is not closely connected with the 
antecedent ; as, " He preaches sublimely, who lives 



PUNCTUATION. 237 

a sober, righteous, and pious life ;" " Self-denial is 
the sacrifice which virtue must make." 

EULE 16 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows a 
verb, and might by transposition be put in the 
nominative case, it generally requires a comma 
before it; as, "It ill becomes good and wise men, 
to oppose and degrade one another ;" " To oppose 
and degrade one another ill becomes good and wise 
men;" "The best preservative of health is, to be 
temperate in all our gratifications ;" " To be tem- 
perate in all our gratifications, is the best preserva- 
tive of health." 

EULE 17 

When a verb is understood, a comma must be 
introduced ; as, " From law arises security ; from 
security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge ;" 
"Reading makes a full man; conference, a ready 
man ; and writing, an exact man H 

EULE 18. 

When the word that is a conjunction, it should 
be preceded by a comma; as, "Be virtuous, that 
you may be happy." 

EULE 19. 

The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, 
formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, in fact, 
therefore, wherefore, however, besides, indeed," and 
all other words of a similar import, must be sepa- 
rated from the context by a comma; as, 

"Nay, do not shudder at my tale; 
Though dark the shade, yet safe the vale; 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" Secondly, we propose answering the usual objec- 
tions ;" " Formerly, her southern boundaries ex- 
tended only to the Floridas;" "In the first place, 
we are instructed by him in our relative duties ;" 
" Lastly, strive to preserve a conscience void of 
offense toward God and man." 

When, however, these phrases are not important, 
and particularly in short sentences, the comma is 
not inserted ; as, " There is surely a pleasure in 
beneficence;" "Flattery is certainly pernicious." 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used to separate those parts 
of a compound sentence, which are neither so 
closely connected as those which are distinguished 
by the comma, nor so little dependent as that which 
requires the colon; as, "Hope leads us to the 
grave ; and Charity attends us to heaven ;" " The 
feelings which animated him, were his life ; the very 
essence of that existence which he prized ;" " The 
orator makes the truth plain to his hearers ; he 
awakens them ; he excites them to action ; he shows 
them their impending danger ;" " Wisdom hath 
builded her house ; she hath hewn out her seven 
pillars ; she hath killed her beasts ; she hath min- 
gled her wine ; she hath also furnished her table." 

Sentences which would require a period, if alone, 
should be marked by the semicolon, when they serve 
to continue an idc^a : as, " His learning was pedan- 
try ; his charity ostentation ; his humility deceit ; 
and his whole deportment hypocrisy ;" " Heaven 
is the region of gentleness and peace; hell of fierce- 
ness and animosity." 



PUNCTUATION. 239 

OF THE COLON". 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two 
or more parts, less connected than those which are 
separated by a semicolon, but not entirely indepen- 
dent ; as, " Avoid evil doers: in such society, an 
honest man may become ashamed of himself;" 
" See that moth fluttering incessantly round the 
candle : man of pleasure, behold thy image ! " 
" When we look forward to the year which is 
beginning, what do we behold there ? All, my 
brethren, is a blank to our view : a dark unknown 
presents itself." 

When a member of a sentence is complete in 
itself, but followed by some supplementary remark 
or further illustration of the subject, the Colon 
should be inserted; as, "Do not flatter yourself 
w T ith an idea of perfect happiness : there is no such 
thing on earth;" "Rebuke the erring in private: 
public reproof hardens." 

When a semicolon, or more than one, has pre- 
ceded, and a still greater pause is necessary to 
mark the concluding sentence, the colon is used ; 
as, "As we may perceive the shadow to have moved 
along the dial, but did not perceive it moving ; and 
it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody 
ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in 
knowledge, as they consist of such insensible steps, 
are only perceivable by the distance." 

The Colon is often used when a quotation or a 
speech is introduced; as, "I admire this sublime 
passage : ' God said, Let there be light, and there 
was light.' " 

The Colon is of little use in marking the sense 
of a composition ; the difference between it and the 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

semicolon, is so small, that one may be substituted 
for the other, without interfering with the meaning. 

OF THE PERIOD. 

The Period is used to mark a fuL and indepen- 
dent sentence ; as, " Fear God." " Honor the 
king." "Never neglect the performance of a 
duty." " There were, surely, always pretenders in 
science and literature in every age of the world ; 
nor must we suppose, because their works and their 
names have perished, that they existed in a smaller 
proportion, formerly, than now." 

Abbreviated words should always be marked by 
the period; as, M. S., P. S., A. D., N. B., etc. 

THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

The Note of Interrogation is used at the end 
of a sentence which asks a question ; as, 

"To purchase heaven has gold the power? 
Can gold remove the mortal hour ? 
In life can love be bought with gold? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?" 

The note of interrogation should not be used, 
where it is only declared that a question has been 
asked; as, " The Cyprians asked me, why I wept ;" 
" The people were not a little alarmed at the phe- 
nomenon ; one, however, gathered courage sufficient 
to ask me how I could sail in the air ! " 

THE NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

The Note of Exclamation is used after sudden 
expressions of surprise, or other emotion ; as, 



PUNCTUATION. 241 

"Glenara! Glenara! now read me my dream!" 

"Yet he may live, — away, despair! 
Be calm, my soul! he yet may live; 
To arraign my fate, my voice forbear ! \ 

God ! my impious prayer forgive ! " 

When the interjection oh is used, the exclamation 
point is usually placed immediately after ; but when 
is employed, the point is placed after one or 
more intervening words ; as, 

"Oh! my offense is rank, it smells to heaven;" 
"But thou, Hope! with eyes so fair." 

OF THE PARENTHESIS. 

The Parenthesis includes an explanatory re-- 
mark or clause, which might be omitted without 
disturbing the grammatical construction ; as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below;" 

" Every planet (for God has made noihing in vain) is 
most probably inhabited." 

The parenthetical clause should be read in a de- 
pressed tone of voice ; it requires a pause of in- 
definite length. 

OF THE DASH. 

The Dash marks an abrupt transition in the 
sentence ; as, 

"There were no stars — no earth — no time — 
No check — no change — no good — no crime." - 



"There was to be a stern death-grapple between Might 
and Right — between the heavy arm and the ethereal 
thought — between that which was and that which ought 
to be;" "Beauty and strength, combined with virtue and 
piety — how lovely in the sight of men ! " 

21 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



OF BRACKETS. 

Brackets are used to inclose a word or sen- 
tence intended to give some explanation, supply 
some deficiency, or rectify some mistake ; as, " He 
[Mr. Canning] was of a different opinion." 

OF THE APOSTROPHE. 

The Apostrophe denotes either the possessive 
case of a noun, or the omission of one or more 
letters of a word ; as, Mary's locket ; 'Tis for it is ; 
Lov'd for loved ; Tho' for though. 

MARK OF ACCENT. 

The Mark of Accent is placed over a syllable 
to denote a particular stress of voice required in 
pronounciation ; as, e'qual, equality. 

OF THE CARET. 

The Caret shows where to insert a word or let- 
Washington 
ter that has been omitted ; as, I was in A yesterday* 

OF THE HYPHEN. 

The Hyphen is used in connecting compound 
words ; as, silver-smith, corn-field. 

The Hyphen is also used when a word is divided, 
and the former part is written or printed at the 
end of one line, and the latter part at the beginning 
of another. It should in this case terminate the 
first line, and not begin the second. 



PUNCTUATION. 243 



MARKS FOR THE LONG AND SHORT VOWELS. 

The Mark designating the long vowel, is placed 
over it ; as, in Holy. 

The Mark denoting the short vowel is used in 
the same manner; as, in Folly. 

OF THE DIERESIS. 

The Dieresis is used to divide a diphthong into 
two syllables ; as, Creator, aerial ; 

"But kind Eetion, touching on the shore, 
The ransomed prince to fair Arisbe bore." 

OF THE PARAGRAPH fl[), 

The Paragraph is placed at the beginning of a 
new subject or discourse ; it is chiefly used in the 
Bible. 

OF THE SECTION (§). 

The Section when used marks a small division of 
a discourse, chapter, or work. 

QUOTATION MARKS (" "). 

The Quotation marks show that the words of 
another are introduced; as, 

"Faded is Alva's noble race, 

And gray her towers are seen afar; 
No more her heroes urge the chase, 
Or roll the crimson tide of war." 

THE INDEX (fi®*). 

The Index is used to point out a remarkable 
passage. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

THE ELLIPSIS. 

The Ellipsis ( — ), or several Asterisks (****) are 
used to denote the omission of some part of a word 
or sentence; as, "K — g for king, c — n for cap- 
tain ;" " I saw him at the th****e." 

THE CIRCUMFLEX ( A ). 

The Circumflex usually indicates the broad sound 
of a vowel; as, in eclat. 

THE BREVE (~), 

The Breve denotes either a close vowel or a syl- 
lable of short quantity ; as, in rapine. 

THE MACRON (-). 

The Macron denotes either an open vowel or a 
syllable of long quantity ; as, in haven. 

THE BRACE (}).. 

The Brace is used to unite a triplet, or to con- 
nect several terms with something to which they 
all have a relation ; as, 

" The town and village, dome and farm, 
Each gives each a double charm, 
As pearls upon an Ethiop's arm." 

The Asterisk (*), the Obelisk (f), the Double 
Dagger (J), the Parallel (||), and Letters and 
Figures, may be used as references to the margin, 
or bottom of the page. 

OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Anciently Capital Letters only were used, and 
followed one another without being divided into 



PUNCTUATION. 245 

words by spaces, or into sentences by points. 
Small letters were not introduced till the seventh 
century, and for centuries after their introduction, 
all nouns were commenced with a Capital. There 
is some diiference of opinion among writers, in re- 
ference to the use of Capital Letters in the English 
Language. The following words should always 
commence with a Capital Letter: 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, 
or any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; and if two sen- 
tences are entirely independent, after a note of 
interrogation, or a note of exclamation ; as, 

" Behold yon breathing prospect bids the Muse 
Throw all her beauty forth. But who can paint 
Like nature? Can imagination boast, 
Amid its gay creation, hues like hers!" 

3. Words used as the appellations of the Deity; 
as, God, Supreme Being, Most High, Lord, Jeho- 
vah, Providence. 

4. All proper names of persons, places, streets, 
mountains, rivers, lakes, bays, ships, etc. 

5. Adjectives derived from proper names; as, 
Grecian, Roman, American. 

6. Titles of distinction, and common nouns per- 
sonified ; as, General Washington ; Stern Winter 
comes, riding on hyperborean storms. 

7. The first word of a formal quotation ; as, 
"Always remember this ancient maxim, '.Know 
thyself;' " " The Redeemer said on the cross : ' It 
is finished/ " When a quotation is introduced 
obliquely a capital is not used ; as, " Solomon says 
that ' a wise son maketh a glad father.' " 

8. Every noun and principal word in the titles 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of books ; as, u Goldsmith's History of Animated 
Nature." 

9. The first word of every line of poetry ; as, 

u Farewell to the land, where the gloom of my glory. 
Arose and o'ershadowed the earth with her name; 
She abandons me now — but the page of her story, 
The brightest or blackest, is filled with my fame." 

10. The pronoun I and the interjection 0. 
Other words beside the preceding, may begin 

•with Capital Letters, when they are emphatical, 
or the principal subject of discourse. 



THE END. 



APPLEGATE & COMPANY, 



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No. 43 MAIN STREET, CINCINNATI. 

In addition to a large and varied assortment of 

School, Classical, Theological and Miscellaneous Books, 

which the j have constantly on hand, publish a series of 

VALUABLE STANDARD WORKS, 

suitable for the family circle, as well as public libraries. 

At this time, when the press teems so abundantly with ephe- 
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a better man : and among their publications, they flatter them- 
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works, the intrinsic worth of which will cause them to be sought 
after by enlightened and discriminating minds, and -as worthy 
of gracing the shelves of their libraries. 

Among their publications may be found the following, to 
which they would respectfully invite attention. To these it is 
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APPLEGATE & CO/S PUBLICATIONS. 

DR. ADAM CLAUSE'S COMPLETE COMMENTARY 
ON THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 

With a portrait of the author, engraved expressly for 
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bossed gilt. 

From the Nashville and Louisville Christian Advocate, 
44 It would be difficult to find any contribution to Sacred 
Literature that has attained to a higher rank than the 
Commentaries of Dr. Adam Clarke. Whether regarded 
as a prodigy of human learning, or as a monument of 
what perseverence and industry, within the compass of a 
single lifetime, can accomplish, it will long continue to 
challenge the admiration of men as a work of unrivalled 
merit. It is a treasury of knowledge, in the accumula- 
tion of which, the author seems to have had no purpose 
in view but the apprehension of truth ; not to sustain a 
particular creed, but the apprehension of truth for truth's 
own sake, restrained in the noble pursuits of no party 
tenets by no ardor for favorite dogmas. It is difficult to 
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ages, and the history of all times and all countries ; and as 
a lexicon for the exposition of abstruse phrases, of difficult 
terms, and the true genealogy of words of doubtful import, 
it immeasurably surpasses all similar works of the age/' 

DE. ADAM CLARKE'S COMMENTARY ON THE 
NEW TESTAMENT. 

2 vols, super-royal 3vo. Plain and embossed gilt. 

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THE COMPLETE WORKS OF THOMAS DICK, LL. D 

1 1 vols, in 2 ; containing An Essay on the Improvement 
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Improvement of Mankind ; An Essay on the Sin and Evils 
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This edition is printed from entirely new plates, contain' 
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ROLLINS ANCIENT HISTORY. 

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MOSHEIM'S CHURCH HISTORY. 

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1 vol., quarto, spring back, marble edge. 



From the Masonic Review. 

This great standard history of the Church from the birth of 
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From the Telescope, Dayton, O. 

This work lias been placed upon our table by the gentlemanly 
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IS t o man ever sat down to read Mosheim in so pleasing a dress. 



"What a treat is such an edition to one who has been studying 
this elegant work in small close print of other editions. 



From Professor VJrightson. 

Whatever book has a tendenc} 7 to add to our knowledge of 
God, or the character or conduct of his true worshipers, or that 
points out the errors and mistakes of former generations, must 
have an elevating, expanding, and purifying influence on the 
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GATHERED TREASURES FROM THE MINES OF 
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Containing Tales, Sketches, Anecdotes, and Gems of Thought, 
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eteel plates. 1 vol. octavo. Embossed. 

To furnish a volume of miscellaneous literature both pleasing 
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From the Cincinnati Daily Times. 

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APPLEGATE & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 

THE SPECTATOR. 

1 vol. royal 8vo, 750 pages, with a portrait of Addi- 
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From the Central Christian Herald, 
"One hundred and forty years ago, when there were 
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from more serious sources. It was widely popular. It 
contains some very excellent writing, not in the spasmodic 
moon-struck style of the fine writing of the present day, 
Dut in a free, graceful and flowing manner. It used to be 
considered essential to a good style and a knowledge of 
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certain our age is not wise in the selection of some of 
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be a parlor volume, which should be read with great profit. 
" But we do not design to criticise the book, but have 
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to a notice of a new edition of the work by Messrs. Apple- 
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is in a style very creditable to the enterprising hous© 
wliich has brought it out." 

From the Cincinnati Commercial. 
u Applegate & Co., 43 Main street, have just published, 
in a handsome octavo volume of 750 pages, one of the 
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PLUTARCH'S LIVES. 

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This edition has been carefully revised and corrected, 
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From the Nashville and Louisville Christian Advocate. 
** Plutarch's Lives. — This great work, to which has 
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APPLEGATE & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 



NOTES ON THE TWENTY-FIVE ARTICLES OF RE 

LIGION, as received and taught by Methodists in the 

United States, 

In which the doctrines are carefully considered and 
supported by the testimony of the Holy Scriptures. By 
Rev. A. A. Jimeson, M. D. 12mo, embossed cloth. 

Thib book contains a clear exposition of the doctrines of 
the Articles, and of the errors against which the Articles 
were directed, written in a popular style, and divided into 
sections, for the purpose of presenting each doctrine and 
Us opposite error in the most prominent manner. 

From Rev. John Miller. 
" It is a book for the Methodist and for the age — a re- 
ligious multum in jparvo — combining sound theology with 
practical religion. It should be found in every Methodist 
family/ ' 



From Rev. "W. R. Babcock, Pastor of the Methodist Church in St 
Louis, Missouri. 
"From our intimate acquaintance with the gifted and 
pious Author of these ' Notes, ' we anticipate a rich intel- 
lectual feast, and an able defense of the Biblical origin of 
the doctrines of the Articles of Religion, as contained in 
the Discipline of the Methodist Church," 



" The laymen of the Methodist Church have long need- 
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ticles as self-evident truths — the concentrated teachings of 
the Holy Bible, and the bulwark of the Protestant Faith 
— they are not sufficiently understood and comprehended 
by those professing to believe them. Dr. Jimeson has 
furnished us, in a condensed form and popular style, with 
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sustained and supported by history and the opinions of 
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Church. " 



APPLEGATE & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 



METHODISM EXPLAINED AND DEFENDED. 

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and character of the work are such, that it will be read 
and appreciated by the great masses of our people who 
are not familiar with more extended and elaborate works. 
Third, It is highly conservative and practical in its ten- 
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and mutual concession between the ministry and laity for 
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confute some particular heresy or assault ; but its views 
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from bigotry and narrow prejudice." 

From the Springfield Republic; 
" We have read this new work of Rev. J. S. Inskip with 
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Common Things,' is one of the most generally useful 
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valuable aid in the acquisition of useful knowledge." 



From Wm.' Roberts, Principal of Ringwold School, Philadelphia, 

"Robert E. Peterson, Esq. — Dear Sir — I have been 
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SACRED LITERATURE OF THE LORD'S PRAYER. 

In which terms are defined, and the text carefully considered. 
12mo., cloth. 

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" The introductory chapter is a learned and patient research 
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PARMER'S AND EMIGRANT'S BOOK. 

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12mo., cloth, 500 pages. 

The publishers are gratified that they are enabled to satisfy the 
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Ellen, or the Chained Mother, and Pictures of Kentucky 
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Drawn from Real Life. By Mart B. Harlan. 

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very. It is written in a happy style and chaste language ; 
is free from abusive epithets or unkind words, and will 
facinate the reader.' ' 

Review of Uncle Tom's Cabin ; or, An Essay on Slavery. 

By A. Woodward, M. D. 

The Evils of Slavery and the Remedy ; The Social, 
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duties of Masters and Servants. 

" This work, although a book for the South, is devoid 
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Religious Courtship; or, Marriage on Christian 

Principles. 
By Daniel Defoe, Author of " Robinson Crusoe." 

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< Crusoe.' " 



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METHODIST FAMILY MANUAL. 

By Rev. C. S. Lovell. 12mo., embossed cloth. Containing the 
Doctrines and Moral Government of the Methodist Church, with 
Scripture proofs; accompanied with appropriate questions, to 
which is added a systematic plan for studying the Bible, rules 
for the government of a Christian family, and a brief catechism 
upon experimental religion. 

This work supplies a want which has long been felt among 
the members of the Methodist Church. As a family manual, and 
aid to the means of grace and practical duties of Christianity, it 
is certainly a valuable work. It also contains the Discipline of 
the Church, with Scriptural proofs, and appropriate questions to 
each chapter. It is certainly an excellent book for religious in- 
struction and edification. We most heartily commend it to the 
Methodist public, and hope it may have a wide circulation and 
be made a blessing to all. 



REMARKABLE ADVENTURES OF CELEBRATED 
PERSONS. 

Large 12mo., gilt sides and back. Beautifully illustrated. 
Embracing the romantic incidents and adventures in the lives 
of Sovereigns, Queens, Generals, Princes, Travelers, Warriors, 
Voyagers, <fcc, <fcc, eminent in the history of Europe and America. 



FAMILY TREASURY, 

Of Western Literature, Science, and Art. Illustrated with 
Steel Plates. 8vo., cloth, gilt sides and back. 
This work most happily blends valuable information and 
sound morality, with the gratification of a literary and imagina- 
tive taste. Its pages abound in sketches of history, illustrations 
of local interest, vivid portraitures of virtuous life, and occa- 
Bional disquisitions and reviews. 



Christianity, as Exemplified in the Conduct of its 
Sincere Professors. By Rev. W. Secker. 

This is a book of rare merit, full of thought-exciting topics, 
and is particularly valuable as an aid to Christian devotion. 
12mo, embossed cloth. 



APPLEQATE & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
TEMPERANCE MUSICIAN. 

A choice selection of original and selected Temperance Music, 
arranged for one, two, three, or four voices, with an extensive 
variety of Popular Temperance Songs. 32tno. 

This is a neat volume, well printed, and well bound, containing 256 pages. 
It is the best collection of temperance songs and music we have seen. Were a 
few copies secured in every town in Ohio, in the hands of the warm-hearted 
friends of the Maine Law, an element of power and interest would be added to 
temperance meetings, and a stronger impulse given to the onward march of the 
sold water army. — Summit, (0.,) Beacon. 



This will certainly become one of the most popular temperance song boobs 
which has been published in the country. We think it is, so far as we have 
examined, the best collection of songs we have seen. Some of them are ex- 
ceedingly beautiful and affecting. — Temperance Chart, 

This is a popular Temperance Song Book, designed for the people, and should 
\)e in every family. We can recommend it to the patronage of all our tempe- 
rance friends, as the best temperance songster, with music attached, we have 
geen. The music in this work is set according to Harrison's Numeral System, 
for two reasons : First, because it is so simple and scientific that all the people 
can easily learn it. Second, it is difficult to set music in a book of this size 
and shape, except in numerals. — Cleveland Commercial. < 



UNIVERSAL MUSICIAN. 

By A. D. Fillmore, Author of Christian Psalmist, <fcc, contain- 
ing all Systems of dotation. New Edition, enlarged. 

The title, "Universal Musician/* is adopted because the work 
is designed for everybody. The style of expression is in common 
plain English, so that it may be adapted to the capacities of all, 
instead of simply pleasing the fancy of the few. 

Most of the music is written in Harrison's Numeral System of 
Notation, because it is the most intelligible of all the different 
systems extant, and is therefore better adapted to the wants of 
community. Music would be far better understood and appre- 
ciated by the people generally, if it were all written in this way. 
For it is more easily written, occupies less space, is more quickly 
learned, more clearly understood, is less liable to be forgotten, 
and will answer all common purposes better than any other. 
But the world is full of music, written in various systems, and 
the learner should acquire a knowledge of all the principal varie- 
ties of notation, so as to be able to read all music. To afford this 
knowledge to all, is the object of the present effort. 

Poetry, which is calculated to please as well as instruct, has 
been carefully selected from many volumes already published, 
and from original compositions furnished expressly for this work, 
Much of the music is original, which is willingly submitted to 
the ordeal of public opinion. Some of it certainly possesses some 
merit, if we may judge from the avidity with which it is pil 
fered and offered to the public by some, would-be, authors, 



APPLEGATE & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 

Universalliad ; Or Confessions of Universalism. A Poem in twelve Can- 
tos, to which are added Lectures on Universalism, wherein the system is ex- 
plained, and its chief arguments considered and refuted. 

Salvation by Christ. By Rev. Wm. Sherlock. 

iEolian Lyrist. By Rev. Wm. B. Gillkam, Pastor of the First Cumberland 
Presbyterian Church, Columbia, Tenn, Figured Notes, 250 pages. 

American Church Iffarp. A Choice Collection of Hymns and Tunes 
adapted to all Christian Churches, Singing Schools, and Private Families. 
By Rev. W. Rhinehart. 12mo., half morocco. 

The Camp Meeting and Sabbath School Chorister. By 

Aarox Cox. 
Sacred IVIeloaeon, A Collection of Revival Hymns. By Rev. R. M. Dalby. 

A Biographical Sketch of Colonel I>aniel Boone, the First 
Settler in Kentucky, interspersed with incidents in the early annals of the 
country. By Timothy Flint. 12mo. Embossed cloth. 

JLi fe of Tec si em §eh, and of his Brother the Prophet, with a Historical Sketch 
of the Shawnee Indians. By B. Drake. 12mo., embossed cloth. 

Life and Adventures of Slack Hawk, with Sketches of Keokuk, 
the Sac and Fox Indians, and the Black Hawk War. By B. Drake. 12cio., 
embossed cloth. 

Western Adventure. ByM'CLUNG. Illustrated. 

Lewis «& Clarke's Journal to the Bocky Mountains. Illus- 
trated. 12mo., sheep. 

Life and Essays of Ben. Franklin. 18mo., cloth. 

Rledical Student in Europe, Or Notes on France, England, Italy, 
&c. Illustrated with steel plates. 

The Poor Man's Home, Or Rich Man's Palace; Or Gravel Wall Build- 
ings. This is one of the most desirable books published, for all who contem- 
plate erecting dwellings or out-houses, as the cost is not over one third that 
of brick or frame, and quite as durable. Illustrated with numerous plans 
and a cut of the author's residence, with full directions, that every man may 
be his own builder. 

Lectures and Sermons. By Rev. F. G. Black, of the Cumberland 
Presbyterian Church. 12mo., embossed cloth. 

A New History of Texas, from the first European Settlements, in 
1682, down to the present time— including an account of the Mexican War, 
together with the Treaty. Paper. 

Map of the Western Rivers. By S. B. Munson. Being a map of the 
navigable parts of the Missouri, Mississippi, Ohio, Illinois, Cumberland, and 
Wabash Rivers, with a Table of Distances. 

A New History of Oregon and California. By Lansfokd W. 
Hastings. Paper. 

Parley's America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Islands, Tales of the Sea, Greece* 
Rome, Winter Evening Tales, Juvenile Tales, Bible Stories, Anecdotes, Sun, 
Moon, and Stars : new and revised editions. 

Parley's Right is Might, Dick Boldhero, The Truth Finder, Philip Brusque, 
Tales of Sea and Land, Tales of the Revolution! 

Bradley's Housekeeper's Guide and Cook Book; Or a plain 
and economical Cook Hook, containing a great variety of new, valuable, and 
approved receipts! 12moi, cloth'. 

Lyons' English Grammar. A new Grammar of the English Lan- 
guage, familiarly explained, and adapted to the use of Schools and Private 
Students. The work is so arranged as to infallibly secure the attention, to 
awaken inquiry, and to leave the most lasting impressions upon the mind 
of the learner. 12mo., cloth. 

Common School Primer. 



